MATERIALS SCIENCE

Introduction

Materials Science vs Materials Engineering

Materials Science involves

investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of
materials

Materials Engineering on the basis of

materials science, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of
properties

Definition of Terms
1. Structure usually relates to the
arrangement of a materials components
Microscopic subject to direct observation
through a microscope
Macroscopic can be viewed by the naked
eye

2. Property a material trait in terms of

the kind and magnitude of response to a
specific imposed stimulus

Definition of Terms

Important Properties of Solid

Materials

Mechanical relate deformation to an applied

load or force (elastic modulus, strength)

Electrical has electric field as the stimulus

(conductivity, dielectric constant)

Thermal has temperature as the stimulus

(heat capacity, thermal conductivity)

Definition of Terms

Magnetic response of a material to the

application of a magnetic field (magnetivity,
permeability)

Optical the stimulus is electromagnetic or

light radiation (refraction, reflectivity)

Deteriorative chemical reactivity of

materials (oxidation, acid deterioration)

Definition of Terms
3. Processing the structure of a material
depends on how it is processed
4. Performance is the function of its
properties
The four components of the discipline of materials science and
engineering are related in this way:
PROCESSING
PERFORMANCE

STRUCTURE

PROPERTIES

Classification of Materials
1. Metals

Composed of one or more metallic elements )

iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, etc.) and often
also nonmetallic elements (carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, etc.) in relatively small amounts

Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in

a very orderly manner and (in comparison to
ceramics and polymers) are relatively dense

Mechanically, metals are stiff and strong, yet are

ductile and resistant to fracture

Metals

Metals have large

amounts of nonlocallized
electrons which are not
bound to particular atoms,
thus making them good
conductors of electricity
and heat. Some also have
good magnetic properties
(Fe, Co and Ni)

Metals are not transparent to visible light, a

polished surface has high luster

Classification of Materials
2. Ceramics

Compounds between metallic and nonmetallic

elements

Frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides (aluminum

oxide Al2O3, silicon dioxide SiO2, silicon carbide SiC,
etc.)

Traditional ceramics clay materials (porcelain),

cement, glass, etc.

Mechanically, ceramics are relatively stiff and strong

and are comparable to metals. They are also very
hard

Ceramics

Ceramics are very brittle (very low

ductility) and are highly susceptible
to fracture

Good insulators of heat and

electricity, some oxide ceramics
(Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior,
and are more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and
polymers

Optically, they may be transparent,

translucent, or opaque

Classification of Materials
3. Polymers

Include plastic and rubber

Many are organic compounds that are chemically

based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements (O, N, and Si)

Have very large molecular structures, often chain-like

nature that have a backbone of carbon atoms

Some of the more common and familiar polymers are

polyethylene (PE), nylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS) and silicon rubber

POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

NYLON

POLYSTYRENE

SILICONE RUBBER

POLYVINYL
CHLORIDE

POLYCARBONATE

Polymers

Polymers typically have low densities

They are not as stiff nor as strong as other

material types. However, because of their low
densities, their stiffness and strength on a per
mass basis are comparable to metals and
ceramics.

Polymers are extremely ductile and pliable

(plastics), thus, they are easily formed into
complex shapes.

Polymers

Generally, they are inert chemically and

unreactive in a large number of environments.

They have a tendency to soften and/or

decompose at modest temperatures which in
some cases limits their use.

They have low electrical conductivities and

are nonmagnetic.

Classification of Materials
4. Composites

Composite is composed of two or more individual

materials, which come from the previous material
categories

The design goal is to achieve a combination of

properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best
characteristics of each of the component
materials

Some naturally-occurring materials are also

considered to be composites (wood, bone)

Composites

Fiberglass is one of the most

familiar composites, wherein
small glass fibers are
embedded within a polymeric
material (normally epoxy or
polyester)

Glass fibers are relatively

strong and stiff (but also
brittle), whereas the polymer
is ductile (but also weak and
flexible). Thus, the resulting
fiberglass is relatively stiff and
strong, flexible and ductile, in
addition to low density

Composites

Carbon Fiber Reinforced

Polymer carbon fibers are
embedded within a polymer

These materials are stiffer and

stronger than the glass fiberreinforced materials, yet they
are more expensive

CFRP are used in some aircraft

and aerospace applications, as
well as high-tech sporting
equipment (e.g. bicycles, golf
clubs, tennis rackets, and
skis,snowboards)

Advanced Materials

Advanced materials are used in high technology

applications, like products that operate or
function using relatively intricate and
sophisticated principles (camcorders, CD/DVD
players, cellphones, computers, fiber optic
systems, spacecraft, aircraft and military
rocketry)

These materials are traditional materials whose

properties have been enhanced, and, also newly
developed, high-performance materials

They are normally expensive

Advanced Materials
1. Semiconductors

Semiconductors have electrical properties that

are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (metals and their alloys) and
insulators (ceramics and polymers).

They are extremely sensitive to the presence

of minute concentrations of impurity atoms for
which the concentrations may be controlled
over very small spatial regions

Advanced Materials
2. Biomaterials

Employed in components implanted into the

human body for replacement of diseased or
damaged body parts

These materials must not produce toxic

substances and must ne compatible with body
tissues (must not cause adverse biological
reactions)

Advanced Materials
3. Smart Materials

Also called Intelligent Materials are able to sense changes

in their environments and then respond to these changes in
predetermined manners traits that are also found in living
organisms

A smart materials (or systems) components include some

type of sensor (that detects an input signal) and an actuator
(that performs a responsive and adaptive function)

Actuators may also be called upon to change shape,

position, natural frequency, or mechanical characteristics in
response to changes in temperature, electric fields, and/or
magnetic fields

Actuators

Shape memory alloys metals that, after having been

deformed, revert back to their original shapes when
temperature is changed

Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response

to an applied electric field (or voltage), they also
generate an electric field when their dimensions are
altered

Magnetostrictive materials behave like piezoelectric

ceramics, but are responsive to magnetic fields

Electrorheological/magnetorheological fluids liquids that

experience changes in viscosity upon the application of
electric and magnetic fields, respectively

Sensors

Optical Fibers

Piezoelectric Materials (including

polymers)

Microelectrochemical devices

Activity
One common item that presents some interesting material property
requirements is the container for carbonated beverages. The material
used for this application must satisfy the following constraints:
1. provide a barrier to the passage of carbon dioxide
2. be nontoxic, unreactive with the beverage, and preferably
recyclable
3. be relatively strong, and capable of surviving a drop from a height
of several feet when containing the beverage
4. be inexpensive and the cost to fabricate the final shape should be
relatively low
5. if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity; and
6. capable of being produced having different colors and/or able to be
adorned with decorative labels
Describe from your understanding of the classification of
materials why metal (aluminum), ceramic (glass), and polymer
(plastic) are used to contain carbonated beverages.

MATERIALS SCIENCE
Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids

Atomic Structure

Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. It

came from the word atomos which means uncut
or indivisible. The atom consists of a central
nucleus, where the protons and neutrons are
located, surrounded by a cloud of electrons.

PARTICLE

CHARGE
(coulombs)

MASS
(amu or
Da)

UNIT
MASS
(kg)

DISCOVERE
D BY:

PROTON

+ 1.6 x

1.007277

1.6726 x

Ernest
Rutherford

NEUTRON

1.008665

1.6749 x

James
Chadwick

ELECTRON

- 1.6 x

0.0005486

9.1094 x

Joseph John
Thomson

Atomic Structure
Atomic number (Z)
number of protons in the
nucleus
- number of electrons of
neutral species

Atomic mass (A) sum of

the masses of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus
Note: Although the number of protons is the
same for all atoms of a given element, the
number of neutrons may vary.

Atomic Structure
Atomic

weight weighted average of the

atomic masses of an atoms naturally occurring
isotopes
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) may be used to
compute the atomic weight. 1 amu = of the
atomic mass of the most common isotope of
carbon, carbon 12 with A=12
1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1 dalton
(Da) = 1.660538782 x kg
Mass Number the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom (Carbon
12 has a mass number of 12, 6 protons and 6

Atomic Structure
Isotopes - atoms with the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons, making
them the same elements that vary in atomic mass

E.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon - 13

Isotones atoms with the same number of

neutrons but different number of protons

E.g. Boron 12 and Carbon 13

Isobars atoms with the same mass number but

different atomic number

E.g. Carbon 12 and Boron - 12

Atomic Models

Rutherford Model
1911, Ernest
Rutherford discovers
that there is a dense,
positively charged
nucleus. Electrons go
around the nucleus.

Most of the mass of the

atom was contained in
central the positive
nucleus surrounded by
negative electrons. The
rest of the atom was

Atomic Models

Thomson Model - 1897, J.J.

Thomson discovers the electron.
He believed electrons were
embedded in positive charge
sphere.

Atoms contains electrons

confined in homogenous jellylike
but relatively massive protons
whose total charge cancels that
of the electrons.

Also called Plum Pudding Model

Atomic Structure

Dalton Model - 1803, John Dalton believed that an

atom was an indestructible particle with no internal frame.

All matter is made of atoms. Each element has different

atoms and atoms of different elements combine in
constant ratios to form compounds

Also called Billiard Ball Model

Atomic Structure

Bohr Model - 1913, Niels

Bohr enhances Rutherfords
model by having electrons
move in a circular orbit at
fixed distances from the
nucleus

Also called Planetary Model

of the Atom

Electrons orbit the nucleus in

shells. Electrons can be
bumped up to a higher shell if
hit by an electron or a photon
of light

Electrons in Atoms

Energies in electrons are quantized , that is, electrons

are permitted to have only specific values of energy.

An electron may change energy, but in doing so it must

make a quantum jump either to an allowed higher energy
(with absorption of energy) or to a lower energy (with
emission of energy)

These allowed electron energies are associated with

energy levels or energy states.

Thus, the Bohr model represents an early attempt to

describe electrons in atoms, in terms of both position
(electron orbitals) and energy (quantized energy
levels)

How is this used in electronics?

Semiconductors conduct less than metal

conductors but more than insulators

Intrinsic Semiconductors semiconductors

in their purest form (Silicon or Germanium
crystals only)

Extrinsic Semiconductors semiconductors

with impurity atoms mixed in

Doping the process of adding impurities which

alters the characteristics of a semiconductor,
mainly, its conductivity

How is this used in electronics?

Insulators atoms with more than 4

valence electrons
- the best insulators have complete shells

Semiconductors atoms with exactly

4 valence electrons

Conductors atoms with less than 4

valence electrons
- the best conductors have only one valence
electron

How is this used in electronics?

Atomic structure of a
silicon atom showing
the nucleus and its
orbital electrons

Doping a silicon
crystal with a
pentavalent
impurity, Arsenic

Simplified drawing of a
silicon atom. The core
includes the nucleus
and inner electrons
Doping a silicon
crystal with a
trivalent
impurity,
Aluminum

Bonding diagram of a
silicon crystal

How is this used in electronics?

A popular semiconductor device, the

diode, is made by joining p- and ntype semiconductor materials

At the instant the p-n junction is

formed, free electrons on the n side
migrate or diffuse across the
junction to the p side.

When a free electron leaves the n

side and falls into a hole in the p
side, two ions are created.

As diffusion continues, a barrier

potential, VB is created.

Electron Configurations

Electron Configuration or structure of an atom,

represents the manner in which electron states are
occupied

Ground State exists when all the electrons

occupy the lowest possible energies with the
foregoing restrictions

Valence Electrons electrons that occupy the

outermost shell

Stable Electron Configurations states within

the outermost or valence electron shell are
completely filled.

Electrons in Atoms

Electrons in Atoms

Paulis Exclusion Principle each electron state

can hold no more than two electrons, which must
have opposite spins. Thus, s, p, d, and f subshells
must each accommodate a total of 2, 6, 10, and
14 electrons respectively.

Activity

Find out whether the following elements

are insulators, semiconductors or
conductors by drawing their electron
configuration and counting the number of
their valence electrons.
1. Germanium (Z = 32)
2. Antimony (Z = 51)
3. Phosphorus (Z = 15)
4. Aluminum (Z = 13)
5. Gallium (Z = 31)

The Periodic Table

Electropositive Elements capable of giving up their few

valence electrons to become positively charged ions

Electronegative Elements can readily accept electrons to

form negatively charged ions, or share electrons with other
atoms

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Ionic Bonding found in compounds of

metallic and nonmetallic elements

Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence

electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.

Coulombic Force attractive bonding force in

ionic bonds, where the positive and negative
ions, by virtue of their opposing charges, attract
one another

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Covalent Bonding stable

electron configurations are
assumed by the sharing of
electrons between adjacent
atoms.

Two atoms that are covalently

bonded will each contribute at
least one electron to the bond, and
the shared electrons are
considered to belong to both atoms

Found in nonmetallic elemental

molecules (H2, Cl2) and
dissimilar atoms (CH4, H2O)

Atomic Bonding in Solids

The number of covalent bonds that is possible for a

particular atom is determined by the number of valence
electrons.

Ex. Carbon has N = 4

8 valence electrons stabilize an atom
84=4
Carbon needs four more electrons to stabilize itself, and can therefore

share four electrons.

Diamonds are simply three-dimensional interconnecting structures
wherein carbon atoms covalently bond with four other atoms.

Ex. Chlorine has N = 7

8 valence electrons stabilize an atom
87=1
Chlorine only needs one more electron to stabilize itself, and can

therefore only bond and share with one more atom.

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Metallic Bonding found in metals and

their alloys

Metallic materials have one, two, or at most,

three valence electrons. These valence electrons
are not bound to any particular atom in the solid
and are more or less free to drift throughout the
entire metal.

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Valence electrons in metallic bonding are

thought to belong to the metallic material
as a whole, forming a sea of
electrons or electron cloud.

The remaining non-valence electrons and

atomic nuclei are called ion cores,
which possess net positive charge as that
of the total valence electrons

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Secondary Bonding or Van der Waals

Bonding or physical bonds are weak in
comparison to the chemical bonds

Exists between virtually all atoms or

molecules but its presence is obscured if
any of the three chemical bonds are
present.

Found in inert gases, and between

molecules in molecular structures that
are covalently bonded.

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Secondary bonding arise from

atomic or molecular dipoles

Dipoles exist whenever there

is some separation of positive
and negative portions in an
atom or molecule.

The bonding results from the coulombic

attraction between the positive end of one
dipole and the negative region of an adjacent
dipole.

Activity

Research and report on:

Fluctuating

Induced Dipole Bonds

Polar Molecule Induced Dipole
Bonds
Permanent Dipole Bonds

Additional Properties Affected by Atomic

Structure

Physical Properties
Mass Density mass per unit volume
Specific Weight weight per unit volume
Dielectric Strength maximum electric field strength a
material can withstand without breaking down
Electrical Resistivity resistance per unit length and crosssectional area/ per unit length and unit weight
Melting Point point which material liquefies when heated
or solidifies when cooled
Heat Distortion Temperature temperature at which a
polymer under load shows deflection
Refractive Index measures how much the speed of a wave
is reduced inside a given medium in relation to a reference
medium
Specific Gravity ratio of density of a substance to the
density of a standard substance

Additional Properties Affected by Atomic

Structure

Chemical Properties
Composition elemental or chemical component
of the material and the relative proportion of its
components
Corrosion partial or complete wearing away,
dissolving or softening due to chemical or
electrochemical reaction with its environment
Crystal Structure the definite, repeating
arrangement of atoms and molecules in a
material
Stereospecifity tendency of polymers and
molecular materials to form with an ordered,
spatial, three-dimensional arrangement of
monomer molecules