Chocolate Chip Cookies

2.25 cups flour

8 Tbsp butter
0.5 cups shortening
0.75 cups sugar
0.75 cups brown
sugar
1 tsp salt
1 tsp baking soda
1 tsp vanilla
0.5 cups Egg Beaters
2 cups chocolate

Chocolate Chip Cookies

2.25 cups

How
much?

8
Tbsp
0.5
cups
0.75 cups
0.75 cups
1
tsp
1
tsp
1
tsp
0.5
cups
2
cups
chips

flour
butter
shortening
sugar
brown sugar
salt
baking soda
vanilla
Egg Beaters
Chocolate

What

Of what?

Chocolate Chip Cookies

How much?

2.25
8
0.5
0.75
0.75
1
1
1
0.5
2

flour
butter
shortening
sugar
brown sugar
salt
baking soda
vanilla
Egg Beaters
Chocolate chips

Of what?

Chocolate Chip Cookies

How much?

2.25 cups
flour
8
Tbsp butter
0.5
cups
shortening
0.75 cups
sugar
0.75 cups
brown sugar
1
tsp
salt
1
tsp
baking soda
1
tsp
vanilla
0.5
cups
Egg Beaters
2
cups Chocolate chips

What

Of what?

Get on with it!

What does this have to do with

CHEMISTRY?

2.25 cups flour + 8 Tbsp butter + 0.5 cups

shortening +

0.75 cups sugar + 0.75 cups brown sugar + 1 tsp

salt +
+ 2 cups Chocolate c
1 tsp
baking soda + 1 tsp vanilla + 0.5 cups Egg
unit
Beaters substance

coefficient

(177C)

1 batch of chocolate chip

cookies!
(a synthesis reaction)

Welcome to
STOICHIOMETRY

The coefficients in chemical equations

represent numbers of molecules or formula
units, not masses of molecules or formula units.
When a reaction is to be run in a laboratory or
chemical plant, the amount of substances
needed cannot be determined by counting
molecules directly.
Counting is always done by weighing.
We will see how chemical equations can be
used to determine the masses of reacting
chemicals.

3NaOH (aq) + H3PO4 (aq)

H2O

Na3PO4 (aq) + 3

In the above reaction, the coefficients give us

the ratios by moles of the reactants and
products.
The coefficients tell us that to make 1 mol of
Na3PO4 from 1 mol of H3PO4, we must also use 3
mol of NaOH.
We dont however, have to carry out the
reaction with these actual numbers of moles.
Whatever quantities we choose must be in the
proportions set by the coefficients.
Regardless of the scale of the reaction, the

3NaOH (aq) + H3PO4 (aq)

H2O

Na3PO4 (aq) + 3

We can look at this equation as a calculating

tool, because its coefficients give us
stoichiometric equivalencies between the
substances involved.
For example, from the above equation we can
generate the following equivalencies:
3 mol NaOH 1 mol H3PO4
3 mol NaOH 1 mol Na3PO4
3 mol NaOH 3 mol H2O
1 mol H3PO4 1 mol Na3PO4
1 mol H3PO4 3 mol H2O

Example: How many moles of sodium

phosphate, Na3PO4, can be made from 0.240 mol
of NaOH by the following reaction?
3NaOH (aq) + H3PO4 (aq)
3H2O

Na3PO4 (aq) +

In practical work, a chemist is often confronted

by a question such as the following.
If I start with so many grams of reactant A,
how many grams of reactant B ought I use, and
how many grams of a particular product should
be produced?
Notice that the question concerns grams, not
moles, for the practical reason that masses in
grams are delivered by laboratory balances.
The coefficients of the desired reaction,
however, know nothing about grams, only about
relative numbers of moles.
If we know two facts, namely, the balanced
equation and the mass of any substance in it,
we can calculate the required or expected mass

Example: Portland cement is a mixture of the

oxides of calcium, aluminum, and silicon. The
raw material for its calcium oxide is calcium
carbonate, which occurs as the chief component
of a natural rock, limestone. When calcium
carbonate is strongly heated it decomposes by
the following reaction. One product CO2, is
driven off to leave the desired CaO as the only
heat
other product.
CaCO3 (s)

CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

A chemistry student is to prepare 1.50 x 102 g of

CaO in order to test a particular recipe for

Calculating Masses of Reactants and Products in

Chemical Reactions
1.Balance the equation for the reaction.
2.Convert the known mass of the reactant or
product to moles of that substance.
3.Use the balanced equation to set up the
appropriate mole ratios.
4.Use the appropriate mole ratios to calculate
the number of moles of the desired reactant or
product.
5.Convert from moles back to grams if required
by the problem.

Example: One of the most spectacular

reactions of aluminum, the thermite reaction, is
with iron oxide, Fe2O3 , by which metallic iron is
made. So much heat is generated that the iron
forms in the liquid state. The equation is
Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s)
Al2O3 (s) + Fe (l)
A certain welding operation, used over and over,
requires that each time at least 86.0 g of Fe be
produced. What is the minimum mass in grams
of Fe2O3 that must be used for each operation?
Calculate also how many grams of aluminum are
needed.

The Wisdom of Gallagher

Why are there Interstate
Highways in Hawaii?
Why are there floatation
devices under plane seats
instead of parachutes?
Why do we drive on parkways
and park on driveways?

Why do hot dogs come ten to a

package and hot dog buns only
eight?

Hot Dogs in the News

Takeru Kobayashi
of Japan downed
44 hot dogs in
12
minutes.
One hot dog = one hot dog
+ one bun.

WHAT IF
Mr. Kobayashi didnt do his math correctly. He bought 5 packs of
hot dogs (10 per package) and 5 packs of hot dog buns (8 per
package). How many hot dogs (according to the official formula)
could he have eaten?
Source:

Hot Dogs in the News

One hot dog = one hot dog + one bun.

WHAT IF
Mr. Kobayashi didnt do his math correctly. He
bought 5 packs of hot dogs (10 per package)
and 5 packs of hot dog buns (8 per package).
How many hot dogs (according to the official
formula) could he have eaten?

5 hot dog packs

10 hot dogs

50 hot dogs

1 hot dog pack

5 bun packs

8 buns
1 bun pack

40 buns

40
possible
Source:

Lets Revisit the Cookies

(again)

For 1 batch:

2.25 cups flour

8 Tbsp butter
0.5 cups shortening
0.75 cups sugar
0.75 cups brown
sugar
1 tsp salt
1 tsp baking soda
1 tsp vanilla
0.5 cups Egg Beaters

In my pantry, I have:
5.5 cups of flour
16 Tbsp of butter
lots of everything else

How many batches of cookies can I

make?

Lets Revisit the Cookies

(again)

For 1 batch:

How many batches of cookies can I

make?

2.25 cups flour

8 Tbsp butter
EXCESS
0.5 cups shortening 5.5 c flour x
0.75 cups sugar
0.75 cups brown
LIMITING
sugar
16 Tbsp butter
1 tsp salt
1 tsp baking soda
1 tsp vanilla
0.5 cups Egg Beaters

1 batch cookies

2.25 c flour
2.4 batches

1 batch cookies

8 Tbsp butter
2.0 batches

Now I Want to Bake a

Cake!
But do I have all the
ingredients I need?
How much flour do I have left after baking all those cookies?

5.5 c flour

1 batch cookies

2.25 c flour

GONE!
16 Tbsp butter

2.0 batches

2.4 batches
of cookies

1 batch

SOME
FLOUR LEFT
OVER

= 2.0 batches
of cookies
8 Tbsp butter

2.25 cups flour

4.5 cups flour used

1 batch cookies

5.5 cups 4.5 cups = 1.0

Many times a chemist will mix reactants in a

mole ratio that does not agree with the
coefficients of the equation.
Some reactions proceed better when one
reactant is in stoichiometric excess, for example.
One such reaction is the preparation of
ammonia, NH3, from its elements.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
Suppose a chemist mixed 1.00 mol of N2 with
5.00 mol of H . What is the maximum number

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)

2NH3 (g)
Note the coefficients tell us that 1 mol of N2
consumes 3 mol of H2.
1 mol N2 3 mol H2
But 5 mol of H2 was used, not 3, so there will be
2 mol of H2 left over.
Once the 1 mol of N2 taken is consumed, no
additional NH3 can form.
Therefore, the reactant that is completely
consumed limits the amount of product that
forms, so it is called the limiting reactant.
In this reaction, N2 is the limiting reactant, it
limited the amount of NH3 that was formed.

Example: In an industrial process for making

nitric acid, the first step is the reaction of
ammonia with oxygen at high temperature in
the presence of a platinum gauze. Nitrogen
monoxide forms as follows:
4NH3 + 5O2
4NO + 6H2O
How many grams of nitrogen monoxide can form
if a mixture of 30.00 g of NH3 and 40.00 g of O2
is taken initially? How many grams of the excess
reactant is left over?

In most experiments designed for chemical

synthesis, the amount of a product obtained
falls short of the calculated maximum amount.
Losses occur for several reasons.
Some are mechanical, such as materials
sticking to glassware.
But one of the most common causes of
obtaining less than the stoichiometric amount of
a product is the occurrence of a competing
reaction.
It produces a by product, a substance made by
a reaction that competes with the main reaction.

The actual yield of desired product is simply

how much is obtained or isolated, stated in
mass units.
The theoretical yield is the amount of product
formed when the limiting reactant is completely
consumed and no losses occur.
When less than the theoretical yield of product
is obtained, chemists generally calculate the
percentage yield or percent yield to describe
how well the reaction went.
The percent yield is the actual yield calculated
yield yield.
as a percentage of theactual
theoretical
Percent yield =
x 100%
theoretical yield

Example: A chemist set up a synthesis of

phosphorus trichloride by mixing 12.0 g P with
35.0 g Cl2 and obtained 42.4 g of PCl3. Calculate
the percent yield of this compound. The
equation for the main reaction is:
2P (s) + 3Cl2 (g)
2PCl3 (l)