INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation

Deals with Science and technology of measurement

of large no. of variables
Uses principles in physics , chemistry & Applied
Science(Engg),Electrical, Electronics, Mechanical,
Computer, communication etc.
i.e., parameters measured need to be texted, stored,
may be processed (for control applications.)
Instrumentation Engg. Is a Multi disciplinary branch of Engg.
Deals with design , manufacture, & utilization of instruments

Block diagram of a measurement system

Medium
Medium

Sensor

Transducer
Transducer

Signal
conditioner

Signal
processor

Display

Sensor

Detecting element
Used to locate the presence of matter or energy ( energy in the
form of heat, light, sound, electrical, pressure, velocity)
Sensitive to either light or temp. or impedance or capacitance
etc.

Transducer

Transducer converts a physical quantity from one form to other. In

case of electrical measurements it converts physical quantity into
electrical signal (voltage or current.)

Signal conditioner

O/P of a transducer is converted to required form by conditioner as

it may be affected by unwanted signals like noise.
Therefore the signal should be in an acceptable form filtering,
shaping, adding, subtracting , multiplying, linearization etc.

Signal processor

The that has to be transmitted from one stage to another.

Display

Display, recording etc.

Basic characteristics of measuring devices

The function of a measuring device is to sense or
detect a parameter in a task such as
pressure,temperature,resistance, voltage, current and
power .
The measuring device must be capable of faithfully
and accurately detecting any changes that occur in
the measured parameter.
For control purposes, the measuring instrument either
generates a warning signal to indicate the need for a
manual change or activates a control device
automatically.
For obtaining optimum performance, a number of basic
characteristics are to be considered.

Characteristics

static

dynamic

Static Characteristics

Features which does not vary or vary very

slowly with respect to time.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
All the static performance characteristics are obtained by one form
or the other of a process called calibration.
INSTRUMENT: A device used to determine the present value of
the quantity under measurement
MEASUREMENT: The process of determining the amount,
degree or capacity by comparison with the expected standards
of the system units being used
ACCURACY: the degree of exactness of a measurement
compared to the expected or desired value
RESOLUTION: A small change in a measured variable to which
an instrument will respond
PRECISION: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements, i.e. successive readings do not differ
EXPECTED VALUE: The design values i.e. the most probable
value that calculations indicate one should expect to measure.
ERROR: the deviation of the true value from the desired value.
SENSITIVITY: The ratio of the change in the output of the
instrument to change in the input of the measured variable.

Errors

Error in measurement:
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard quantity.
It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system under consideration and observing
the resulting response on the instrument. The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure
of the expected value. The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value is expressed
in terms of the error in measurement.
Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage error.
Absolute error is defined as the difference between the expected value of the variable and the
measured value of the variable.
e=Yn Xn
e = absolute error
Y n = expected value
X n = measured value
Absolute value
e
Therefore % error = --------------------- 100 = ----------- 100
expected value
Yn
Therefore % error = Y n X n
-------------------- 100

Yn
It is more frequently expressed as accuracy rather than error
Therefore
(Y n X n)
A = [1 - ------------------------ ] 100

Yn
Where A is the relative accuracy, in terms of percentage, a = A 100 % and a is percentage
accuracy.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as systematic

error. There are basically three types of systematic errors. 1. instrumental, 3.
environmental and 3. observational errors.
These errors occur due to shortcoming of the instrument such as defective
or worn parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on the instrument.
These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence the
measurements of quantity in the same way.
Instrumental errors: these errors are inherent in measuring instruments,
because of their mechanical structure. Example: friction in the bearings of
various moving components, irregular spring tension etc..
These can be avoided by
1. selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement.
2. applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental
error.
3. calibrating the instrument against a standard.
Environmental errors: these errors are due to conditions external to the
measuring device such as effect of changes in temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure, magnetic or electrostatic fields.
These errors can be avoided by air conditioning, sealing certain components,
and using magnetic shields.
Observational errors: these are the errors introduced by the observer.
Example: parallax error..

Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting
its primary element (sensing element) to predetermined variations in
the measured quantity. The most common variations are
1.step change, 2. linear change, 3. sinusoidal change.
The dynamic characteristics are:
Speed of response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured variable without dynamic error (faithful
reproduction).
Lag: it is the retardation or delay in the response of the instrument to
changes in the measured value.
Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of a
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
instrument, if no static error is assumed.

TRANSDUCER
Adevicethat transformsonephysicaleffectintoanother is known as
transducer.
Example: Pressure to Voltage
Basic function of a transducer: Measurement and control.

Manymeasuring andsensingdevicesincludingloudspeakers, thermo

couples,microphonesandphonographpickups,
maybetermedtransducers.

SENSOR

Transducersthat areusedinmeasurementsystemsareoften called

sensors.
Sensors that convert measurands (e.g., temperature, strain, or light
intensity) into electrical signals make up the vast majority of sensors
used today.

INTRODUCTION

Electrical transducer: An electrical transducer is a device which

converts a physical quantity into proportional electrical signal.

The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A
transducer uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process
of transforming signal from one form to another is called transduction.
An electrical transducer consists of two parts which are closely related
to each other. The two parts are sensing or detecting element and
transduction element. The sensing or detecting element is commonly
known as sensor.
Sensor: sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a
change in physical condition.
The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an
electrical output as shown in the figure.

Non electrical quantity

Sensing element
Sensor response

Transduction element

Electrical signal

Introduction contd,.

Many times the transducer is a part of a circuit and works with other
elements of that circuit to produce the required output. Such a circuit is
called signal conditioning circuit.
Classification of transducers: They are classified as electrical and
mechanical transducers.
Mechanical transducers generate output signal which is mechanical in
nature. Example: a bimetallic strip is subjected to temperature change,
the output is a mechanical displacement of the strip.
Electrical transducers respond to non-electrical quantities but generate
output signal which is electrical in nature.
It is practically possible to use either mechanical or electrical transducer
for the measurement of physical parameter, it is observed that
electrical transducers are preferred over mechanical transducers.
Advantages of electrical transducers:
1. Electrical signals can be easily amplified or attenuated to a level
suitable for various devices.
2. Power requirements are very small.
3.They can processed and transmitted with ease.
4. They have reduced effects of friction and other mechanical non
linearities and mechanical wear and tear.
5. IC technology makes electrical and electronic systems are compact
have less weight and portable.
Disadvantage of electrical transducers are their cost, and
complicated design.

Factors influencing choice of transducers

Size
Weight
Shape
Sensitivity to desired, modifying and
Accuracy
Operating range

Transient and Frequency response

interfering inputs

Transducer Classification

Energy Converter
(Called Self Generating or Active) Thermocouple, Solar Cell
Energy Controller
(Called Passive or Modulating)
LDR, RTD

Classification of transducers

In general the electrical transducers are

classified according to their structures,
application area, method of energy
conversion, output signal nature etc.,
1.active and passive transducers
2. analog and digital transducers
3. primary and secondary transducers
4. transducer and inverse transducers

Active and passive transducers:

Active transducers do not require an external source or power for their
operation. They are self generating type of transducers.
Draw power from input applied
Eg. Piezo electric crystal used for acceleration measurement
Passive transducers: these transducers do not generate any electrical signals by
themselves. To obtain an electrical signal from such transducer an external source of
power is essential. Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical
parameter (R, L, C). They are also known as externally power driven transducers.
Any change in these parameters can be observed only if they are externally
powered.
derive power required for transduction from auxiliary power source
- externally powered
Eg : resistive, inductive, capacitive
Without power they will not work

Classification contd.,

Based on principle used

Thermo electric
Magneto resistive
Electro kinetic
Optical
Analog transducer
convert I/p quantity into an analog o/p
Analog o/p- a continuous fn. Of time
Eg. Strain gauge, L VDT, thermocouple
Primary and secondary transducer
first a mechanical device converts a physical quantity in mechanical signal which will be
a primary transducer and then this mechanical signal gets converted to electrical signal
which will be a secondary transducer. .Eg: Bourdons tube converts pressure into
displacement and LVDT converts into displacement into electrical signal.
Digital transducer
Converts I/p into an electrical o/p in the form of pulses
Inverse transducer
Which converts electrical signal to physical quantity

Classification of transducers contd.,

Transducers can further be classified into different categories depending upon the principle
employed by their transduction elements to convert physical phenomenon into output electrical
signals.
The different electrical phenomena employed in the transduction elements of transducers are
as follows:
1, resistive
2. inductive
3. capacitive
4. electromagnetic
5. piezo electric
6. photo emissive
7. photo resistive
8. potentiometer
9. thermo electric
10. frequency generating

Classification of transducers

Passive transducer

Device whichderivepowerreqd.fortransduction
fromauxiliarypowersource
- externally powered
Eg :resistive,inductive,capacitive
Without powertheywillnotwork

Active transducer

No extrapowerreqd.toproduceI/p
Self generating
Draws power from input applied
Eg. Piezo electric xtal used for accelartion measurement

Active transducers

Active transducers can further be subdivided into following catagories.

Active transducers

photovoltaic

Thermo electric

Piezo electric

electromagnetic

RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a

change in some physical phenomenon.
The resistance of a metal conductor is given by
R = L/A.
where is resistivity of the conductor, L is the length of the conductor, A
is the area of cross section
The electrical resistive transducers are designed on the of the basis of the
methods of variation of any one of the quantities in the above equation,
such as change in length, change in area of cross section and change in
resistivity.
The change in length of the conductor is used in translational or rotational
potentiometers to measure linear or rotational displacement.
The change in resistance of the conductor or semiconductor due the strain
applied is the working principle of the strain guage which is used to
measure various physical quantities such as pressure , displacement and
force.
The change in resistivity of a conductor due to temperature variations
cause change in resistance. This principle is used in the measurement of
temperature.

Resistive transducers

Linear

Rotary

Carbon film

Potentiometric resistance transducers

The potentiometer is used to measure linear or angular displacement.

Construction: It consists of a wire wound resistive element along with a sliding contact,
which is called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translator or rotator.
Rotational resistive devices are circular and are used for the measurement of angular
displacement. Various types of potentiometer constructions are shown in the previous
slide.
The resolution of the potentiometers influences the construction of their resistive
elements. Normally, the resistive element is a single wire of conducting material which
gives a continuous stepless variation of resistance as the wiper travels over it. Therefore
wire wound pots are used extensively.
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the
measurement of either translatory or rotatary motion.
For the measurement of rotational motion, they are formed into a circle or a helix., as
shown in the previous slide.
If wire wound type of construction is adopted, the variation in resistance is not a linear
continuous change, but is in small steps as the sliding contact moves from one turn to
other.
In case of fine resolution, a carbon film or a conductive plastic resistance elements are
used.
Non-linear pots: in many instrumentation problems, nonlinear conditions arise. In such
cases nonlinear potentiometers are used.
A potentiometer is passive transducer since it requires an external power source for its
operation.

Advantages and disadvantages

ADVANTAGES
They are inexpensive
Simple to operate
Useful in the measurement of large amplitudes of displacements
Electrical efficiency is very high
They provide sufficient output to allow control operations

DISADVANTAGES
For a linear potentiometer large force is required to move the sliding contacts
The sliding contacts can wear out and become misaligned and generate noise

Strain guage

Strainguage is a passive type resistance pressure

transducer whose electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed
The wire filament is attached to a structure under strain and
the resistance in the strained wire is measured
What is a Strain Gage
A strain gage is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts force,
pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be
measured.
The Basics
When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the
displacement and deformation that occur.
The strain gage is one of the most important tools of the electrical measurement
technique applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name
indicates, they are used for the measurement of strain. As a technical term "strain"
consists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished by a positive or negative sign.
Thus, strain gages can be used to pick up expansion as well as contraction.
The strain of a body is always caused by an external influence or an internal effect.
Strain might be caused by forces, pressures, moments, heat, structural changes of the
material and the like. If certain conditions are fulfilled, the amount or the value of the
influencing quantity can be derived from the measured strain value. In experimental
stress analysis this feature is widely used. Experimental stress analysis uses the strain
values measured on the surface of a specimen, or structural part, to state the stress in
the material and also to predict its safety and endurance. Special transducers can be
designed for the measurement of forces or other derived quantities, e.g., moments,
pressures, accelerations, displacements, vibrations and others. The transducer
generally contains a pressure sensitive diaphragm with strain gages bonded to it.

STRAIN GUAGE TRANSDUCERS

The strain gauge is a passive resistive transducer which is based on the principle of conversion
of mechanical displacement into the change in resistance.
A knowledge of strength of material is essential in the design and construction of machines and
structures. The strength of the material is normally characterized in terms of stress which is
defined as the force experienced per unit area and is expressed in pressure units.
Stress is is deduced from the changes in the mechanical dimensions and the applied load. It
cannot be measured directly.
The mechanical deformation is measured with strain gauge elements.
The strain is defined as the change (l) in length l, per unit length and is expressed as (l) /l in
micro strains.
The stress strain curve for a typical metal specimen is shown in the fig., below.

Principle of operation of strain gauge

The basic principle of an electrical resistance strain gauge is the fact that the resistance
of the wire changes as a function of strain, increasing with tension, and reducing with
compression.,
The change is resistance is measured with a Wheatstone bridge.
The strain gauge is bonded with to the specimen and hence the gauge is subjected to the same
strain as that of the specimen under test.
The materials used for fabrication of electrical strain gauges must possess some basic qualities
to achieve high accuracy, sensitivity ect., they are high specific resistance, low temperature
coefficient of resistance, constant guage factor, over a wide range of strain values.
The bonding cement should have high insulation resistance and excellent transmissibility of
strain, and must be immune to moisture effects.
Eg: Constantin alloys (45% nickel, 55% copper), Nichrome alloys(80% Nickle 20%Chromium)
The proper functioning of a strain guage is wholly dependent on the quality of bonding which
holds the guage to the surface of the structure undergoing the test.
Applications of strain guages include pressure sensors,load cells, torque sensors, position
sensors, etc.

TYPES OF STRAIN GUAGES

Depending on the principle of operation and their constructional features, strain guages are
classified into three types.
Mechanical, optical, electrical.
Electrical guages are commonly used ones.
The electrical strain guages measure the changes in resistance, capacitance, or inductance
due to strain transferred from the specimen to the basic gauge element. Of these the common
type is the bonded resistance type of strain guage.
Basic forms of resistance wire strain guages:
1. Bonded resistance wire strain guages, 2. foil strain guages, 3. unbonded resistance
wire strain guage, 4. semiconductor strain guage.
1. bonded resistance wire strain guage:
In bonded resistance wire strain guage tbe resistance element is cemented to the base
which is a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bekalite or a sheet of teflon.
The resistive element is of the form of a wire, foil, or film.
The common type of bonded gauge is shown in the next slide.

Bonded type strain guage

BONDED WIRE STRAIN GUAGE

The metallic bonded strain gauge a fine wire element of about 25m or less in diameter is
looped back and forth on a base (carrier) or mounting plate. The base is cemented on a
carrier which is thin sheet of paper, bakelite or silicon.
The backing material needs to be made of something that can withstand the temperatures
encountered.
Transmit strain but electrically insulate except the bonding adhesive.
The tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and there by increases the length and
decreases the cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in the resistance.
Advantages and disadvantages:
These are easy to manufacture in large numbers at relatively low cost.
They low gauge factors
Their current carrying capabilities is limited because of low area of cross-section of the wire.
Stress concentrations can occur at the terminal and wire joints causing failures.

Appliations of strain guages

In load cells for weighbridges, scales,

vehicles and in medical and educational
applications.
For monitoring structures such as bridges
and buildings.
In research and development applications,
including automotive, aerospace, medical,
process, oil and gas, and power
generation.
Virtually every other sector of industry.

Bonded strain guage

Unbonded wire strain guage

Un-bonded wire strain gauge :

The principle of the un-bonded metallic strain gauge is based on the change in electrical
resistance of a metallic wire due to the change in the tension of the wire.

An un bonded strain gauge device is a free filament sensing element where strain is
transferred to the resistance wire directly without any backing.
This type consists of a stationary frame and a movable platform. Fine wire loops are
wounded around the insulated pins with pretension. Relative motion between the platform
and the frame increases the tension in two loops, while decreasing tension in the other
two loops. These four elements are connected approximately to a four arm Wheat stone
bridge and the bridge is balanced when no load is applied.
When an external load is applied, the resistance of the strain guage changes, causing an
unbalance of the bridge circuits, resulting in an output voltage. This output voltage is
proportional to the strain.
A displacement of the order of 50micrometers can be detected with these strain guages.
These type strain gauges are used for measurement of acceleration, pressure, force etc.

Foil strain guages

In this guage the strain is detected using a metal foil.

The metals and alloys used for the foil are nichrome,constantin,isoelastic (NI
+ Cr + Mo), nickel and platinum.
On account of larger surface area, foil guages have a much greater
dissipation capacity.
Therefore, they can be used at a higher operating temperature range.
Both wire and foil type functionalities are similar. The advantage of foil type
is that they can be fabricated on a larger scale, and in any shape. The foil
can be etched on the base.
They can be made thinner compared to wire units and are more flexible.
They can be mounted in curved surfaces.
Film formed is approximately 0.2mm thick and the resistance value is 50 1000.

Figure foil type strain guage

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Silicon gages are formed from single-crystal silicon whose orientation and doping are the
most important design parameters. The gage factor depends on the resistivity (determined by
the doping) and the crystal orientation.
Bonded semiconductor gages are made by slicing sections from specially processed silicon
crystals and are available in both n and p types. Diffused semiconductor gages utilize the
diffusion process employed in integrated-circuit manufacture. This type of construction may
allow lower manufacturing costs in some designs, since a large number of devices can be
made on a single silicon wafer. The deviation from linearity is approximately 1%.
The basic principle of operation of the semi conductor strain guage is the piezo resistive
effect., i.e., the change in the value of resistance due to change in resistivity of the
semiconductor because of strain applied.. However , in metallic gauges, the change in
resistance is mainly due to change in dimension.
The semi conducting materials used are silicon and germanium.:
A typical semiconductor strain guage is shown in the figure below.

Advantages and disadvantages of semiconductor strain

guages

It has a high guage factor, which allows measurement of very small strains.
Hysteresis characteristics of semiconductor strain guage is excellent (the
inability of the guage element to resume the exact identical physical form it had
before being stressed produces the difference in resistance. This is known as
hysteresis).
Life of the semiconductor strain guage is long.
It has an excellent frequency response.
It has a small size.
It has low power consumption.
Higher speed and less delay.
Portability.
The change in resistance due to stain is 40 - 100 times more than the alloy
types
They have low cross sensitivity
Disadvantages:
It is sensitive to changes in temperature.
The linearity of the guage is poor.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The capacitance of a system depends on the dielectric medium used and properties of a capacitor.

parallel plate capacitor:

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

C= A/d
To have capacitive system to be used as a sensor, it is necessary to change the value of
capacitance proportional measured value. Such a variation is achieved in four ways.
1. Change of distance: By changing the distance of separation between the plates the
capacitance can be changed. i.e., keeping one plate fixed and the other plate moving. As the
distance increases from he fixed plate, the capacitance decreases.
In the fig below blue coloured plate is fixed and yellow plate is movable.

Capacitive transducers contd.,

2. Change in plate area:

This method is suitable in the measurements of rotational displacements.
The arrangement is employed in the form of slotted rotor and stator as shown in the
figure.
As the rotor plates of the capacitor are rotated, he capacitance varies proportional to
the angular displacement of the rotor plates.
This method can be used to measure the torques.
The picture above shows how the area of the plates can be adjusted by varying the
overlap.

Capacitive transducer contd

Change in dielectric::
By inserting a slab of variable permittivity,the capacitance can be varied.
Introduction of a slab of variable permittivity gives rise to a composite capacitor.
This method is used in capacitive type level meter.
Variable
displacement

Moving insulation having variable

permittivity

Fixed plates

Capacitive transducers contd

.Using quartz diaphrams:
Two silvered quartz diaphrams are used as shown in the figure:
Depending on the pressure, the displacements of these diaphrams vary and hence, the
capacitance of the system varies.
This method is used in capacitive pressure transducers.
Applications of capacitance transducers
To measure displacement, pressure
(differential pressure transmitters

Silvered quartz
diaphrams

displacement

In the above diagram the flexible diaphragm act as one of the capacitor plates. As
pressure is applied to the input it bends towards the fixed plate thus increasing the
capacitance.In the above capacitor the position of the dielectric is varied to vary the
capacitance. The picture below shows an application of this.

The last diagram shows an application for capacitive transducers. The frequency of
the oscillator is determined by the LC combination. The output of the oscillator is
converted to a DC voltage. The value of the voltage can be displayed on a digital
meter as inches.

Capacitive pr transducer contd.,

The diagram above shows a transducer that makes use of the variation in capacitance resulting
from a change in spacing between the plates.
This transducer measures pressure (in vaccum)
Construction and working:
Enclosed in a airtight container is a metallic diaphram which moves to the left when pressure is
applied to the chamber and to the when vaccum is created.
This diaphram is used as one plate of a variablecapacitor.
Its distance from the stationary plate as determined by the pressure applied to the unit ,
determines the capacitance between the plates.
The variation of capacitance is purely function of diaphrams position.
Advantages and disadvantages of capacitive transducers:
Advantages:
1. the force required is small and hence power required to operate is small. Therefor
useful in small systems.
2. They are highly sensitive.
3. they have a good frequency response, and have high input impedance, so loading
effects are minimum.
4. the useful in the applications where stray magnetic fields affect the performance of
inductive transducers.

capacitive pressure transducer

Capacitive transducers contd.,

Disadvantages of capacitive transducers:

Proper insulation is required between metallic
parts of the capacitive transducers.
The stray capacitances affect the performance
of the transducer. It can be overcome by
proper earthing the frame of the transducer
They show non linear behaviour due to the
edge effects and stray electric fields. These
can be eliminated by using guard rings.
Due to long leads and cables used, loading
effect makes low frequency response poor and
reduces sensitivity.
For very low value of capacitances (of the of
pico farads), the output impedance tend to
have very high value which causes loading
effects.

Inductive transducers

Inductive Transducers
The inductive transducers work on the principle of the magnetic induction of magnetic
material. Just as the resistance of the electric conductor depends on number of factors, the
induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of variables like the number of turns
of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic material, and the permeability of the flux
path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are used in the flux path and there
are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change in the inductance
of the circuit and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the working of the
instrument.
There are two common type inductive transducers: simple inductance type and two-coil
mutual inductance type. Both have been described below along with their circuits.
1) Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers
In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is used as the
transducer. When the mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is moved,
it changes the permeance of the flux path generated by the circuit, which changes the
inductance of the circuit and the corresponding output. The output from the circuit is
calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly gives the value of the
parameter to be measured.

Inductive transducer is a simple one in which variation pf inductance as a function of displacement

is achieved by variation in self inductance or mutual inductance
L = ns
Where N - no. of turns of the coil
S reluctance of the coil given by
Therefore

S=l/A
L = [nA]/l

Variable Reluctance Type Proximity Transducers

Working
The device consists of a coil that is wound on a core made up of ferromagnetic
material. The displacement is given to the core through a target that makes an upward
and downward movement according to the displacement produced. It does not touch
the core of the coil and a smaller air gap is made between them.
When the target moves closer to the coil due to the displacement, the air gap becomes
less causing the reluctance of the magnetic field to reduce and thus the coil inductance
to increase. The value of inductance keeps on varying according to the variation in
target movement. A CRO or a recorder takes these values and displays it to the user.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
Large displacement can be measured
Friction between plunger and body is insignificant,
thus giving a long life
Disadvantages:
Not quite as linear as the potentiometer or the l.v.d.t.
Frequency range is limited to 0.1 of the excitation
frequency of the a.c. bridge (not applicable to the
FM system)

AC instrumentation transducers

Just as devices have been made to measure certain physical quantities and repeat that
information in the form of DC electrical signals (thermocouples, strain gauges, pH
probes, etc.), special devices have been made that do the same with AC.
It is often necessary to be able to detect and transmit the physical position of mechanical
parts via electrical signals. This is especially true in the fields of automated machine tool
control and robotics. A simple and easy way to do this is with a potentiometer: (Figure
below)

ac instrumentation transducers contd.,

However, potentiometers have their own unique problems. For one, they rely on
physical contact between the wiper and the resistance strip, which means they
suffer the effects of physical wear over time. As potentiometers wear, their
proportional output versus shaft position becomes less and less certain. You
might have already experienced this effect when adjusting the volume control on
an old radio: when twisting the knob, you might hear scratching sounds
coming out of the speakers. Those noises are the result of poor wiper contact in
the volume control potentiometer.
Also, this physical contact between wiper and strip creates the possibility of
arcing (sparking) between the two as the wiper is moved. With most
potentiometer circuits, the current is so low that wiper arcing is negligible, but it
is a possibility to be considered. If the potentiometer is to be operated in an
environment where combustible vapor or dust is present, this potential for arcing
translates into a potential for an explosion!
Using AC instead of DC, we are able to completely avoid sliding contact between
parts if we use a variable transformer instead of a potentiometer. Devices made
for this purpose are called LVDT's, which stands for Linear Variable Differential
Transformers. The design of an LVDT looks like this: (Figure below)

The LVDT (Linear Variable

Differential Transformer) is an
electrometric device that produces an
electrical voltage proportional to the
displacement of a movable Magnetic
Core. The LVDT is composed of these
basic components:
A COIL WINDING ASSEMBLY
consisting of a Primary Coil and two
Secondary Coils symmetrically spaced
on a tubular center.
A CYLINDRICAL CASE which
encloses and protects the Coil Winding
Assembly.
A rod shaped MAGNETIC CORE
which is free to move axially within the
Coil Winding Assembly.
A separate shield is used for
ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING.

AC output of linear variable differential

transformer (LVDT) indicates core
position.
Obviously, this device is a transformer:
it has a single primary winding
powered by an external source of AC
voltage, and two secondary windings
connected in series-bucking fashion. It
is variable because the core is free to
move between the windings. It is
differential because of the way the two
secondary windings are connected.
Being arranged to oppose each other
(180o out of phase) means that the
output of this device will be the
difference between the voltage output
of the two secondary windings. When
the core is centered and both windings
are outputting the same voltage, the
net result at the output terminals will
be zero volts. It is called linear
because the core's freedom of motion
is straight-line.

Diagram showing the arrangement of coils

in LVDT

LVDT Construction
The device consists of a primary winding (P) and two secondary windings named S1 and
S2. Both of them are wound on one cylindrical former, side by side, and they have equal
number of turns. Their arrangement is such that they maintain symmetry with either side of
the primary winding (P). A movable soft iron core is placed parallel to the axis of the
cylindrical former. An arm is connected to the other end of the soft iron core and it moves
according to the displacement produced.

Working of LVDT

As shown in the figure above, an ac voltage with a frequency between (50400) Hz is supplied to the primary winding. Thus, two voltages VS1 and VS2
are obtained at the two secondary windings S1 and S2 respectively. The
output voltage will be the difference between the two voltages (VS1-VS2) as
they are combined in series. Let us consider three different positions of the
soft iron core inside the former.
Null Position This is also called the central position as the soft iron core
will remain in the exact center of the former. Thus the linking magnetic flux
produced in the two secondary windings will be equal. The voltage induced
because of them will also be equal. Thus the resulting voltage VS1-VS2 = 0.
Right of Null Position In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has
a value more than the linking flux at the winding S1. Thus, the resulting
voltage VS1-VS2 will be in phase with VS2.
Left of Null Position In this position, the linking flux at the winding S2 has
a value less than the linking flux at the winding S1. Thus, the resulting voltage
VS1-VS2 will be in phase with VS1.

Working of LVDT

From the working it is clear that the difference in voltage, VS1-VS2 will depend on the right or
left shift of the core from the null position. Also, the resulting voltage is in phase with the primary
winding voltage for the change of the arm in one direction, and is 180 degrees out of phase for
the change of the arm position in the other direction.
The magnitude and displacement can be easily calculated or plotted by calculating the
magnitude and phase of the resulting voltage.

LVDT

The displacement can be calculated from the magnitude of the output voltage. The output voltage
is also displayed on a CRO or stored in a recorder.
Advantages
1. There is no frictional contact between the core and
the coils and therefore inductive device has long life
2.Linearity: the output voltage is practically linear for displacements up to 5mm.
3) High output: the output obtained from it is fairly high and it can be measured easily without
requiring the need of the intermediate amplification.
4) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the changes in the temperature
5.Infinite resolution: Produces a high resolution of more than 10 millimeter.
6.High sensitivity: Produces a high sensitivity of more than 40 volts/millimeter.
7Small in size and weightless. It is rugged in design and can also be assigned easily.
8 Produces low hysteresis and thus has easy repeatability.
Disadvantages
1. The whole circuit is to be shielded as the accuracy can be affected by external magnetic field.
2. The displacement may produce vibrations which may affect the performance of the device.
3. Produces output with less power.
Complex electronic circuitry is required, including
an oscillator for frequencies other than mains frequency
4. The efficiency of the device is easily affected by temperature. An increase in temperature
causes a phase shift. This can be decreased to a certain extent by placing a capacitor across
either one of the secondary windings.
5. A demodulator will be needed to obtain a d.c output.
than potentiometer
Applications
To measure displacement, acceleration,
pressure (differential pressure transmitter),
force, strain

Temperature transducers

Sensing methods
thermal expansion
change in shape or size with temperature

thermocouples
two wires of different materials formed into a loop produce a
current when one junction changes temperature

resistive devices
electrical resistance changes with temperature

Thermocouples

Principle: when two dissimilar metals are joined a predictable voltage will be
generated that relates to the difference in temperature between the measuring
junction and the reference junction (connection to the measuring device).
Temperature measurement with thermocouple is based on the Seeback effect.

Thermoelectric transducer
Thermoelectric transducer is an active transducer.
It is a temperature transducer which converts thermal energy into an electric energy.
Most common one is a thermocouple, which is used as a primary transducer for temperature
measurement. It converts changes in temperature into electrical signal.
The working of a thermocouple can be explained on the basis of Seeback effect, Peltier effect, and
Thompson effect.
Seeback effect: if two wires of different metals are joined together forming a closed circuit and if the
two junctions formed are at different temperatures, an electric current flows around a closed
circuit. If the two metals used are copper and iron, then the current flows from copper to iron at
hot junction and from iron to copper at cold junction as shown in the figure below..
metalA (+)

Hot
junction

copper

T2

T1
Hot
junction

metalB (-)
iron

Cold junction

T1

copper

emf

- +

T2
Cold junction

THERMOCOUPLE

If the copper wire is cut, the emf appears across the open circuit,. This emf is known as
seeback emf. This seeback emf is proportional to the difference in the temperatures of the
two junctions
.Peltier effect: when two disssimilar metals form two junctions, and an emf is connected as
shown, then current flows through the junctions. When current flows through the copper iron
junction, T1 from copper to iron, heat is absorbed making t1 junction hot. And when current
flows through iron copper junction T2, from iron to copper, heat is liberated making junction
T3 cold.
Thompson effect: when current flows through a copper conductor having thermal gradient
along the length of the conductor, heat is released at the point where current is in the
direction same as the heat flow, while heat is absorbed at a point where current flow in the
direction opposite to the heat flow.
Construction of thermocouple: is made up of two wires of dissimilar metals joined
together to form junctions. Out of the two junctions T1 and T2, T2 is kept at constant
reference temperature. Hence is referred as cold junction. The temperature change to be
measured is refernced as hot junction. When T2 > T1, an emf is generated due to
temperature gradient. Magnitude of emf generated depends on the material used for the
wires and the temperature difference. The two wires are twisted and welded together.
Materials used for thermocouples copper constantin, iron-constantin
Platinum-platinum-rhodium etc.,they cover a wide range of -200 0C 28000C.
Out of all materials, platinum is the most stable material, even in the oxidising atmosphere.
Copper constantin gives high output., maximum sensitivity.
Iron constantin is used in industrial applications, and is inexpensive.
For higher temperature measurements tungsten and molebdenum alloys are used.
The two conductors are insulated from each other at the hot junction from measuring
instrument. Depending n the temperature ranges different inssulating materials are used.

Advantages and limitations of thermocouples

The thermocouple is rugged in construction.

It covers eide range of temperature ranges from -270 degree celcius to 2700 degree
celcius.
Using extension leads and compensating cables, long transmission distances for
temperature measurements are possible. It most suitable for industrial furnaces.
It cheaper in cost.
The calibration can easily be checked.
It offers good reproducebility.
Spped of response is high.
Accuracy is high.
Limitations:
For accurate measurements cold junction compensation is necessary.
The emf induced versus temp characteristic is non-linear.
Stray voltage pick up is possible.
In many applications amplification of the signal is required.
A series of thermocouple connected toghter are called thermopile.
Thermopiles are used to measure root temperatures of furnaces and temperatures of
moving masses of metals

Examples:
Thermocouples.

Platinum T.C

Thermistor
A type of resistor used to measure temperature changes,
relying on the change in its resistance with changing
temperature. Thermistor is a combination of the words
thermal and resistor.
The thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in

1930, and has U.S. Patent #2,021,491

Material: a ceramic or polymer composed of a sintered

mixture of metallic oxides such as MN, Ni, Co, Cu, Fe and
uranium. Their resistances at ambient temperature may
range from 100 to 100K . They are available in wide
variety of shapes and sizes.

THERMISTORS

Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement,

temperature control, and temperature compensation, because of
their large change in resistance.
They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range
-100degree centigrade to +200 degree centigrade.
The measurement of the change in resistance with temperature is
carried with a Wheatstone bridge.
Thus thermistors are very sensitive and can detect very small
changes in temperatures.
This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes it useful for
precision temperature measurements, control and compensation.

Classification

Thermistors come in two varieties; NTC, negative thermal coefficient,

and PTC, positive thermal coefficient.

The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases proportionally with

increases in temperature.

PTC thermistors have increasing resistance with increasing

temperature
Thermistor come in two varieties; NTC, negative thermal coefficient,
and PTC, positive thermal coefficient.
Extremely non-linear devices (high sensitivity)
Common temperature ranges are 100 oF (~-75 oC) to +300 oF (~150 oC)
Some can reach up to 600 oF

The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature.

PTC thermistors have increasing resistance with increasing temperature

Different types of thermistors

Thermistors can take various shapes; rod, disc, washer, bead

Construction of thermistors

The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads. Some may
come in the form of glass probes. The probes are used to measure
the temperature of liquids.
Where greater power dissipation is required, disc, rod or washer
types may be used.
Thermistors can be connected in series or parallel combinations for
applications requiring increased power handling capability.
Thermistors are chemically stable and therefore can be used in
nuclear environments.

Construction of thermistors

NTC Thermistors are most commonly made from the oxides

of metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel and copper. The
metals are oxidized through a chemical reaction, ground to a
fine powder, then compressed and subject to very high heat.
Some NTC thermistors are crystallized from semiconducting
material such as silicon and germanium.

PTC Thermistors are generally made by introducing

small quantities of semi conducting material into a
polycrystalline ceramic. When temperature reaches a
critical point, the semi conducting material forms a
barrier to the flow of electricity and resistance climbs
very quickly.

Working principle

Electrical resistance of a metal depends on the temperature.

The basic principle of thermistors is that; change in temperature

changes its resistance, this change can be converted to electrical
signal.
Resistance of these types of
thermistors increases with the
rise in temperature.

Due to the special ResistanceTemperature-characteristic, there

is no additional temperature
regulation or safety device
necessary while reaching high
heat-power level when using the
low resistance area

PTC working principle

The PTC-heating element regulates the power sensitively

according to the required temperature. The power input depends
on the requested heat output.
NTC working principle

where:Tistemperature(inKelvin),
TRefisthereferencetemperature,usuallyatroomtemp.

(25C;77F;298.15K),
Ristheresistanceofthethermistor(W),
RRefistheresistanceatTRef,
bisacalibrationconstantdependingonthethermistormaterial,usually
between3,000and5,000K.

Sample configuration in application (PTC Thermistor)

Thedramaticriseinresistanceof
aPTCatandabovethetransition
temperaturemakesitidealfor
overcurrentprotection.

Forallcurrentsbelowthedesiredlimiting
current,thepowerdissipatedinthethermistor
isnotsufficienttoself-heatthedevicetoits
transitiontemperature.

Shouldanover-currentconditionoccur,the
thermistorwillself-heatbeyondthetransition
temperatureanditsresistancerisesdramatically.
Thiscausesthecurrentintheoverallcircuittobereduced.

NTC thermistor is a versatile component that can be used in a wide

variety of applications where the measured is temperature
dependent.

Thermistor applications are grouped according to one of the three

fundamental electrical characteristics;

The current-time characteristics

The voltage-current characteristic
The resistance-temperature characteristic

Applications of thermistors (NTC)

ApplicationbasedonCurrent-Timecharacteristic
Time delay, surge suppression, inrush current limiting and
sequential switching represent some of the earliest, high
volume uses of thermistors. These thermistor applications are
all based upon the current-time characteristic.
ApplicationbasedonResistance -temperature
characteristic
Applications that are based upon the resistance temperature
characteristics include temperature measurement, control, and
compensation.

Piezoelectric transducer

In 1880 J. curie showed that when two opposite faces of a thin slice of
certain crystals are subjected to a mechanical force, then opposite
charges are developed on the two faces of the slice. The magnitude of
the electric potential between the two faces is proportional to the
deformation produced.
The polarity of the potential produced across the faces get reversed if
the direction of deformation is reversed.
Conversely if varying potential is applied to the axis of the crystal, the
dimensions are changed and the crystal deforms.
This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect, and the materials
exhibiting this effect are called piezoelectric materials.
The substances exhibiting piezoelectric effect are quartz, rochelle salt
and tourmaline.
Quartz is used in RF oscillators, and filters. This a naturally available
crystal and is cheap.
Rochelle salt is used in microphones, headsets, loudspeakers and
phonograph pickups.
It has greatest piezoelectric activity, but mechanically weak and can
break easily.
It is a synthetic crystal.
Tourmaline is strong and shows least piezoelectric activity.
Other synthetic crystals are Barium Titanate, Dipotasium Tartarate,
Lithium Sulphate etc.,
Natural crystals have the advantage of very low leakage current and
allow measurement of slowly varying parameters.
Synthetic crystals have the advantages of higher output, high sensitivity,
and capable of withstanding high mechanical stress.

Construction of piezoelectric pressure transducer

A crystal is placed between
solid base and force summing
member.

Piezoelectric transducer

Metal electrodes plated on to

faces of piezoeelectric crystal
are taken out to measure
output. The electrodes become
plates of the parallel plate
capacitor.
Thus it is a charge generator.
The output voltage is given by
V0 = Q/C.
The output is very high. No
external power supply is
required.
High frequency response is
excellent.
But these crystals are water
soluble and hence dissolve in a
humid environment. The
output voltage is affected by
temperature variations.
It is not useful in measuring
static conditions.

Crystal pile in a piezoelectric

pressure transducer

Practically the sensitive piezoelectric transducer element of a piezoelectric

transducer is in the form of pile of pairs of quartz discs.
These discs are held in such a way that their optically flat faces are between
a flat metal face called load plate on one side and transducer housing on the
other side. For this preloading spring is used. This arrangement is shown in
the previous slide.
Such transducers have natural frequencies30 50 KHz.
The output voltage is available at the o/p connections proportional to the
pressure to be measured.
Advantages and limitations of piezoelectric pressure transducers
Rugged in size and small size.
High output with negligible phase-shift.
Excellent frequency response.
Limitations:
They are water soluble. Hence high humid environment they get dissolved
They are temperature sensitive.
They can be used in dynamic measurements only.
Applications
They used in measuring accelerometers, vibration, sound intensisity, and
dynamic pressure.
Used in aerodynamics, supersonic and wind tunnels, explosions and bomb
blasts, in ultrasonic flow meters micro motion actuators.
Uaed in spark ignition engines in dust filters producing high voltage low
current electric power.

Photoelectric transducers

Photoelectric transducers are used for producing photoelectric effect which

is the effect of visible radiations.
The photoelectric transducers include photo-emissive, photoconductive and
photovoltaic transducers.
In photo emissive transducers, when radiation falls on cathode, electrons are
emitted from cathode.
In photo conductive transducers, an electric output is produced due to
change in resistance of the material, when light falls on the photoconductive
material.
In photovoltaic transducers, an output voltage proportional to the intensity of
radiation.
Photo conductive cell:
It is commonly used photosensitive element in the relays and proximity
switches.
It is also used in intrusion alarms and counters as sensor.
Construction:

The photoconductive cell is a two terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance
will vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. For obvious reasons, it is frequently
called a photoresistive device.
The photoconductive materials most frequently used include cadmium sulphide (CdS) and
cadmium selenide (CdSe). Both materials respond rather slowly to changes in light intensity.
The peak spectral response time of CdS units is about 100 ms and 10 ms for CdSe cells.
Another important difference between the two materials is their temperature sensitivity. There is
large change in the resistance of a cadmium selenide cell with changes in ambient temperature,
but the resistance of cadmium sulphide remains relatively stable. The spectral response of a
cadmium sulphide cell closely matches thatof the human eye, and the cell is therefore often
used in applications where human vision is a factor, such as street light control or automatic iris
control for cameras.
The essential elements of a photoconductive cell are the ceramic substrate, a layer of photo
conductive material, metallic electrodes to connect the device into a circuit and a moisture re
sistant enclosure.
The circuit symbol and construction of a typical photoconductive cell are shown.

Light sensitive material is arranged in the form of a long strip, zigzagged across a disc shaped base with
protective sides. For added protection, a glass or plastic cover may be included. The two ends of the strip
are brought out to connecting pins below the base.

Characteristics of a Photoconductive
cell:

The illumination characteristics of a typical photoconductive cell are shown from

which it is obvious that when the cell is not illuminated its resistance may be
more than 1 00 kilo ohms. This resistance is called the dark resistance. When
the cell is illuminated, the resistance may fall to a few hundred ohms. Note that
the scales on the illumination characteristic are logarithmic to cover a wide
ranges of resistance and illumination that are possible. Cell sensitivity may be
expressed in terms of the cell current for a given voltage and given level of
illumination.

The major drawback of the photoconductive cells is that temperature variations

cause substantial variations in resistance for a substantial variations in
resistance for a particular light intensity. Therefore such a cell is unsuitable for
analog applications.

The photoconductive cell used for relay control is shown as circuit above When
the cell is illuminated, its resistance is low and the relay current is at its
maximum. When the cell is dark, its high resistance reduces the current down to
a level too low to energize the relay. Resistance R is included to limit the relay
current to the desired level when the resistance of the cell is low.
Photoconductive cells are used to switch transistors on and off, as illustrated in
figure. When the cell shown in figure is dark, the transistor base is biased above
its emitter level, and the device is turned on. When the cell is illuminated, the
lower resistance of the cell in series with R biases the transistor base voltage
below its emitter level. Thus, the device is turned off.

Phototransistor Construction

Phototransistor Background
Operation similar to traditional transistors
Have a collector, emitter, and base
Phototransistor base is a light-sensitive
collector-base junction
Small collector to emitter leakage current
when transistor is switched off, called
collector dark current

Photo transistor

.The idea of the photo transistor has been known for many years. William

Shockley first proposed the idea in 1951, not long after the ordinary
transistor had been discovered. It was then only two years before the photo
transistor was demonstrated. Since then phototransistors have been used in
a variety of applications, and their development has continued ever since.
Phototransistor structure
Although ordinary transistors exhibit the photosensitive effects if they are
exposed to light, the structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimised
for photo applications. The photo transistor has much larger base and
collector areas than would be used for a normal transistor. These devices
were generally made using diffusion or ion implantation

Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a
homo-junction structure. The more modern phototransistors use type III-V materials
such as gallium arsenide and the like. Heterostructures that use different materials
either side of the p-n junction are also popular because they provide a high
conversion efficiency. These are generally fabricated using epitaxial growth of
materials that have matching lattice structures. These photo transistors generally use
a mesa structure. Sometimes a Schottky (metal semiconductor) junction can be used
for the collector within a phototransistor, although this practice is less common these
days because other structures offer better levels of performance.

Heterojunction mesa-structure
phototransistor

Phototransistor Package types

Phototransistor Operation
A light sensitive collector base p-n junction
controls current flow between the emitter and
collector
As light intensity increases, resistance
decreases, creating more emitter-base current
The small base current controls the larger
emitter-collector current
Collector current depends on the light intensity
and the DC current gain of the phototransistor.

Operation of a photo transistor

The actual operation of a phototransistor depends on the biasing

arrangement and light frequency. For instance, if a PN junction is
forward biased, the increased current through the junctions due to
incident light will be relatively insignificant. On the other hand, if the
same junction is reverse biased, the increase in current flow will be
considerable and is a function of the light intensity. Therefore,
reverse bias is the normal mode of operation.
Now, if the PN junction is the collector-base diode of a bipolar
transistor, the light-induced current effectively replaces the base
current. The physical base lead of the transistor can be left as an
open terminal, or it can be used to bias up to a steady state level. It
is the nature of transistors that a change in base current can cause
a significant change (increase) in collector current. Thus, light
stimulation causes a change in base current, which in turn causes a
bigger increase in collector current and, considering the current gain
(hfe), a rather large increase at that.

Basic Phototransistor Circuit

The phototransistor must be properly biased

Characteristics of a photo transistor

Operation of photo transistor contd.,

Illumination of the central region causes the release of electron hole pairs.
This lowers the barrier potential across both the junctions, causing an
increase in the flow of electrons from the left regin into the centre region
and on to the right region.
For a given amount of illumination on a very small area, the photo transistor
provides a much a larger output current than available from a photo diode.
i.e, a photo transistor is more sensitive.
Arrays of transistors and low current diodes are widely used as photo
detectors for such applications as punch cards and tape readouts. Photo
transistors are more sensitive than photo diodes.

Photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the

atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the
photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and
release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an
electric current results that can be used as electricity.
The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist,
Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would
produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In
1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the
photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for
which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first photovoltaic
module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954 During the energy
crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a
source of power for non-space applications.

Photovoltaic cell or solar cell

The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic

photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell. Solar cells are
made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials,
such as silicon, used in the microelectronics industry.
For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially
treated to form an electric field, positive on one side
and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the
solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms
in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors
are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming
an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in
the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This
electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a
light or a tool.

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a

support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are
designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volts
system. The current produced is directly dependent on how muchlightstrikesthe

module

Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general, the

larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity that will be
produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (dc)
electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical
arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.
Today's most common PV devices use a single junction, or interface, to
create an electric field within a semiconductor such as a PV cell. In a
single-junction PV cell, only photons whose energy is equal to or greater
than the band gap of the cell material can free an electron for an electric
circuit. In other words, the photovoltaic response of single-junction cells is
limited to the portion of the sun's spectrum whose energy is above the band
gap of the absorbing material, and lower-energy photons are not used.
One way to get around this limitation is to use two (or more) different cells,
with more than one band gap and more than one junction, to generate a
voltage. These are referred to as "multijunction" cells (also called
"cascade" or "tandem" cells). Multijunction devices can achieve a higher
total conversion efficiency because they can convert more of the energy
spectrum of light to electricity.
As shown below, a multijunction device is a stack of individual singlejunction cells in descending order of band gap (Eg). The top cell captures
the high-energy photons and passes the rest of the photons on to be
absorbed by lower-band-gap cells.
Much of today's research in multijunction cells focuses on gallium arsenide
as one (or all) of the component cells. Such cells have reached efficiencies
of around 35% under concentrated sunlight. Other materials studied for
multijunction devices have been amorphous silicon and
copper indium diselenide.
As an example, the multijunction device below uses a top cell of gallium
indium phosphide, "a tunnel junction," to aid the flow of electrons between
the cells, and a bottom cell of gallium arsenide.

Photovoltaic cells convert photons to electrons; these cells

are normally made from silicon, a semiconductor. When light
shines on the cell, some of it is absorbed in the form of
energy. This energy frees the electrons, which flow in a
certain direction; this flow is a current of electricity. The
current produced along with the voltage of the cell
determines how much power the cell will produce.
By 1930 both copper oxide and selenium cell were being
used in devices which were light-sensitive like photometers
and so on. But, all these early solar cell did not have much
efficiency of energy conversion as efficiency was lesser than
1%. This stalemate was overcome in 1941 by Russell Ohl
with the invention of silicon solar cell. In 1954, three notable
American researchers Calvin Fuller, Daryl Chapin, and Gerald
Pearson developed a silicon solar cell which had an
efficiency of energy conversion of 6% under direct sunlight.
The 3 researchers developed a range of various strips of
silicon, placed them under sunlight and turned the captured
electrons into electricity. They were the ones who developed
the first solar panel. By the later half of 1980 silicon cell and
gallium arsenide cell which had the efficiency of greater
than 20% had been invented. In 1989 a concentrator cell was
invented which had the capability to concentrate sunlight on
the surface of cell with the use of lenses and had an
efficiency of 37%. Today different types of solar cells of
varying costs and efficiencies

Microphones

A microphone is an acoustic to electric transducer that converts

sound into an electrical signal.

Microphones capture sound waves with a thin, flexible diaphragm.

The vibrations of this element are then converted by various
methods into an electrical signal that is an analog of the original
sound.
Most microphones in use today use electromagnetic generation
(dynamic microphones), capacitance change (condenser
microphones) or piezo-electric generation to produce the signal from
mechanical vibration.
Carbon Microphone
It consists of two metal plates separated by carbon granules
When sound waves strike this plate, the pressure on the granules
changes
this in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates

Piezo Microphone

A piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezo-electricity

It is widely used to amplify acoustic instruments for live
performanceto record sounds in unusual environments

Ribbon microphones
Corrugated metal ribbon is suspended in a magnetic field.
The ribbon is electrically connected to the microphone's output
vibration within the magnetic field generates the electrical
signal.

Microphone Types (contd

Carbon Microphone
It consists of two metal plates separated by carbon granules
When sound waves strike this plate, the pressure on the granules
changes.
This in turn changes the electrical resistance between the plates.

Piezo Microphone

Ribbon microphones

A piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezo-electricity

It is widely used to amplify acoustic instruments for live
performance
to record sounds in unusual environments

Corrugated metal ribbon is suspended in a magnetic field.

The ribbon is electrically connected to the microphone's output
vibration within the magnetic field generates the electrical
signal.

The carbon microphone, also known as a carbon button

microphone (or sometimes just a button microphone) or a carbon
transmitter, is a sound-to-electrical signal transducer consisting of two
metal plates separated by granules of carbon. One plate faces outward
and acts as a diaphragm. When sound waves strike this plate, the
pressure on the granules changes, which in turn changes the
electrical resistance between the plates. (Higher pressure lowers the
resistance as the granules are pushed closer together.) A direct current
is passed from one plate to the other, and the changing resistance
results in a changing current, which can be passed through a telephone
system, or used in other ways in electronics systems to change the
sound into an electrical signal.
Carbon microphones were the only practical means of obtaining highlevel audio signals, and were widely used in telephone systems. Their
low cost, inherently high output and "peaked" frequency response
characteristic were well suited for this application. Carbon microphones
were widely used in early AM radio broadcasting systems (usually
modified telephone microphones), but their limited frequency response,
as well as a fairly high noise level, led to their abandonment. They
continued to be widely used for low-end public address, and military
and amateur radio applications.

Carbon microphones

Advantages and applications: the main advantage of

carbon microphones is their high output signal in a
voltage circuit it provides a signal sufficient for the
remote transmission and reproduction with an electromagnetic earpiece. Amplification is not required. In the
past carbon microphones were widely used in
telephones. It is assumed that the development of the
telephony was extremely accelerated by the invention
of the carbon microphone. In the 1920s and 1930s in
professional audio engineering the carbon microphone
was already replaced by the condenser microphone.
Today in communication technology the electret
microphone dominates the market.

The dynamic microphone works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. In dynamic

microphones the speed of the diaphragm movement causes the signal, not the current
deflection. This is the reason why a dynamic microphone is also referred to as a velocity
microphone.

Carbon microphone

Basic schematic of carbon microphone:

Dynamic Microphones
In a dynamic microphone, a small movable induction
coil, positioned in the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet, is attached to the diaphragm.
When sound enters through the windscreen of the
microphone, the sound wave vibrations move the
diaphragm.
When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the
magnetic field, producing a varying current in the coil
through electromagnetic induction.

Condenser (or Capacitor) Microphones

In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm acts as one plate

of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce changes in the
distance between the plates.
Since the plates are biased with a fixed charge (Q), the
voltage maintained across the capacitor plates changes with
the vibrations in the air.

Condenser microphone

The condenser microphones operate according to the physical principle of a

capacitor. As the diaphragm displacement produces the signal and not the
diaphragm speed, condenser microphones are also referred to as
elongation receivers. Condenser microphones are available in most different
designs, as this term only designates the transducer principle. The term,
however, has been established as a microphone category, because the
sound properties are closely connected with the transducer principle.
Principle: in a condenser microphone there is a thin diaphragm in front of an
insulated metal plate when an electrical voltage is applied. This assembly
corresponds to a plate capacitor, which has an electrical capacity. When
sound makes the diaphragm vibrate, the distances between the two
capacitor plates and the capacity of the capacitors change. These variations
in capacitance effect variations in voltage an electrical signal. Because of
its high signal quality the condenser microphone is a standard recording
microphone in studios today. But it is quite sensitive and can be damaged
by very high sound pressure levels. More and more condenser microphones
are used in public address systems and for live applications.

LOUD SPEAKERS

Loud speaker is a device that converts audio signals into

corresponding sound waves.
All practical loud speakers are of moving coil type.
In moving coil loudspeaker a coil of wire is suspended in the strong
magnetic field of a circular permanent magnets shown.
Since the coil carries audio current it is commonly called as voice
coil. One end of the coil is attached to a large cone shaped paper
or cloth diaphragm. A suspension called spider keeps the coil
centered between the pole pieces and permits forward and
backward motion of the coil and cone assembly.
When audio current flows through the voice coil a magnetic field is
produced around the coil. This magnetic field is at right angles to
the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The two fields attract
or repel each other depending on the instantaneous polarity of the
audio current. This causes an inward and outward motion of the coil
and cone assembly.

Working of the loud speaker

Whe audio current floes through the voice coil, a magnetic field is produced around
the coil. This magnetic field is at right right angles to the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet. The two fields attract or repel each other, depemding on the
instantaneous polarity of the audio signal. This causes the inward or the outward
motion of the coil and the cone assembly from its central position.
The resulting conr vibration in turn vibrates the air in immediate contact with the
diaphram. The vibration of airproduces the sound corresponding to the audio
signal.
Horn speakers: A horn speaker is a modified version of dynamic speakers. In horn
speakers small end of a cone type structure is placed on the diaphram. This
arrangement produces sound more efficiently than the traditional speakers.
Woofers and tweeters and drivers:
To produce faithful reproduction of music and speech, a loud speaker must be able
to reproduce frequencies between 20 to 20000 Hz. It is difficult to reproduce
sound faithfully by one speaker for the entire range of audio frequencies.
Therefore sound systems employ speakers of three different sizes. Woofer, driver
and tweeter. Woofers are the largest of the three types and reproduce lowest
frequencies. Medium azed speakers reproduce mid range fequencies are called
drivers. Tweeters are the smallest and produce high frequencies.

Signal conditioning
Introduction to signal conditioning:

Most data acquisition systems involve obtaining data from various

transducers that produce analog signals. Often, the signals from the
transducers are low level and require various kinds of signal
conditioning. Signal conditioning can include filtering, amplification,
attenuation, multiplexing, etc.
In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signa
in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for furthe
processing. Most common use is in analog-to-digital converters
Many applications require environment or structural measurements,
such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn,
require signal conditioning before a data acquisition device can
effectively and accurately measure the signal. Key signal conditioning
technologies provide distinct enhancements to both the performance
and accuracy of data acquisition systems.
In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage
(which consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning stage (where usually
amplification of the signal is done) and a processing stage (normally
carried out by an ADC and a micro-controller). Operational amplifiers (op
amps) are commonly employed to carry out the amplification of the
signal in the signal conditioning stage.

Signal conditioning

Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting,

range matching, isolation and any other processes required to make
sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning
Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and
current, AC voltage and current, frequency and electric charge.
Sensor inputs can be accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor,
resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge, and LVDT or RVDT.
Specialized inputs include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or
clock, relay or switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for
signal conditioning equipment can be voltage, current, frequency,
timer or counter, relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other
specialized outputs.

Signal conditioning processes

Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching,

isolation and any other processes required to make sensor output suitable for
processing after conditioning.

Filtering

Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the signal
frequency spectrum contains valid data. The common example are 60Hz AC power
lines, present in most environments, which will produce noise if amplified.

Amplifying

Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the
inputed signal, and increases its signal-to-noise ratio. For example, the output of an
electronic temperature sensor, which is probably in the millivolts range is probably too
low for an Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to process directly. In this case it is
necessary to bring the voltage level up to that required by the ADC.
Commonly used amplifiers on signal conditioning include Sample and hold amplifiers,
Peak Detectors, Log amplifiers, Antilog amplifiers, Instrumentation amplifiers or
programmable gain amplifiers.[1]

Isolation

Signal isolation must be used in order to pass the signal from the source to the
measurement device without a physical connection: it is often used to isolate possible
sources of signal perturbations. Also notable is that it is important to isolate the
potentially expensive equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the
sensor.
Magnetic or optic isolation can be used. Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from
voltage to a magnetic field, allowing the signal to be transmitted without a physical
connection (for example, using a transformer). Optic isolation takes an electronic signal
and modulates it to a signal coded by light transmission (optical encoding), which is
then used for input for the next stage of processing.

Linear Voltage Divider

The output voltage as a function of temperature is as follows

 Microphones are transducers to convert sound pressure

variations into the analogous electrical signals.
Inside the microphone, the diaphragm (much smaller
than one finds in a loudspeaker and usually made of
very thin plastic) moves back and forth when the sound
waves hit it.
The coil, attached to the diaphragm, moves back and
forth as well.
The permanent magnet produces a magnetic field that
cuts through the coil. As the coil moves back and forth
through the magnetic field, an electric current flows
through it.
The electric current flows out from the microphone to an
amplifier or sound recording device.

Applications
Thermistor is a versatile component and used in
various applications where temperature is a factor to
be considered.
Depending on type of application and specific
output,either PTC or NTC thermistors are used.
The application part is broadly divided into PTC
thermistor application and NTC thermistor
application.

Application of PTC Thermistors

They are used as resettable fuses.
They are used in time delay circuits.
PTC Thermistors are used in motor starting circuits.
They are also used in Degaussing circuitry.
The PTC Thermistor can provide a combination of heater and
thermostat in one device
They are used as liquid level and flow sensors.

Photo: Right: A typical

BBCMarconi radio broadcast microphone from

about the mid-1930s. Left: A simple,
modern headset microphone.

Dynamic microphones are just ordinary microphones that use diaphragms, magnets, and
coils. Condenser microphones work a slightly different way by using a diaphragm to move
the metal plates of a capacitor (an electric-charge storing device) and generate a current
that way. Most microphones are omnidirectional, which means they pick up sound equally
well from any direction. If you're recording something like a TV news reporter in a noisy
environment, or a rare bird tweeting in a distant hedgerow, you're better off using a
unidirectional microphone that picks up sound from one specific direction. Microphones
described as cardioid and hypercardioid pick up sounds in a kind of "heart-shaped" (that's
what cardioid means) pattern, gathering more sound from one direction than another. As
their name suggests, you can target shotgun microphones so they pick up sounds from a
very specific location because they are highly directional. Wireless microphones use
radio transmitters to send their signals to and from an amplifier or other audio equipment
(that's why they're often called "radio mics").

Application of NTC Thermistor

General industrial applications

Industrial process controls
Plastic laminating equipment
Fiber processing & manufacturing
Hot mold equipment (thermoplastics)
Solar energy equipment

Automotive and Transportation Application

Emission controls
Engine temperatures
Aircraft Temperatures.

Medical Applications
Fever Thermometers
Fluid temperature
Dialysis Equipment

Consumer/Household Applications
Burglar alarm
Refrigeration and air conditioning
Fire detection
Oven temperature control

Advantages of Thermistors

Thermistors have high sensitivity, better then that offered by thermocouples, RTDs.

High accuracy, ~0.02 C (0.36F)

They offer a wide range of high resistance values.

They have a small size.

Thermistors have a faster response time then that of RTDs

Thermistors have high sensitivity, better then that offered by thermocouples, RTDs.

High accuracy, ~0.02 C (0.36F)

They offer a wide range of high resistance values.

They have a small size.

Thermistors have a faster response time then that of RTDs

Limitations

Limited temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 C (-148 ~ 302 F).

Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike RTDs which have a very linear

relationship.

Errors can result from self excitation currents being dissipated by the thermistors.

They get de-calibrated on exposure to higher temperatures

Limited temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 C (-148 ~ 302 F).

Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike RTDs which have a very linear

relationship.

Errors can result from self excitation currents being dissipated by the thermistors.

They get de-calibrated on exposure to higher temperatures

 There are very few commercial applications

involving PTC thermistors that are based upon the
resistance-temperature characteristic.
Most PTC thermistor applications are
based upon either the steady state selfheated condition (voltage-current characteristic) or upon the dynamic self-heated
condition (current-time characteristic) or
a combination of both.

Sample configuration in application

(PTC Thermistor)

Thedramaticriseinresistanceof
aPTCatandabovethetransition
temperaturemakesitidealfor
overcurrentprotection.

Forallcurrentsbelowthedesiredlimiting
current,thepowerdissipatedinthethermistor
isnotsufficienttoself-heatthedevicetoits
transitiontemperature.

Shouldanover-currentconditionoccur,the
thermistorwillself-heatbeyondthetransition
temperatureanditsresistancerisesdramatically.
Thiscausesthecurrentintheoverallcircuittobereduced.

Thermistors are variable resistance type of transducers. Let us see what they are and their working.
What are Thermistors?
Thermistors are one of the most commonly used devices for the measurement of temperature. The thermistors are resistors whose resistance changes with the temperature. W hile for most of the metals the resistance increases with temperature, the thermistors respond negatively to the temperature and their resistance decreases with the increase in temperature. Since the resistance of thermistors is dependent on the temperature, they can be connected in the
electrical circuit to measure the temperature of the body.
Materials used for Thermistors and their Forms
The thermistors are made up of ceramic like semiconducting materials. They are mostly composed of oxides of manganese, nickel and cobalt having the resistivities if about 100 to 450,000 ohm-cm. Since the resistivity of the thermistors is very high the resistance of the circuit in which they are connected for measurement of temperature can be measured easily. This resistance is calibrated against, the input quantity, which is the temperature, and its value can be
obtained easily.
Electrical Calibration
www.e.FlukeCal.com/Calibration
Learn W hat Makes Electrical Calibration Effective. Free Guide!
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Thermistors are available in various shapes like disc, rod, washer, bead etc. They are of small size and they all can be fitted easily to the body whose temperature has to be measured and also can be connected to the circuit easily. Most of the thermistors are quite cheap.
Thermistor Shapes

Advantages of Thermistors
Here are some of the advantages of the thermistors
1) W hen the resistors are connected in the electrical circuit, heat is dissipated in the circuit due to flow of current. This heat tends to increase the temperature of the resistor due to which their resistance changes. For the thermistor the definite value of the resistance is reached at the given ambient conditions due to which the effect of this heat is reduced.
2) In certain cases even the ambient conditions keep on changing, this is compensated by the negative temperature characteristics of the thermistor. This is quite convenient against the materials that have positive resistance characteristics for the temperature.
3) The thermistors are used not only for the measurement of temperature, but also for the measurement of pressure, liquid level, power etc.
4) They are also used as the controls, overload protectors, giving warnings etc.
5) The size of the thermistors is very small and they are very low in cost. However, since their size is small they have to be operated at lower current levels.

Reference
Book: Mechanical Measurements by Thomas G. Beckwith and N. Lewis Buck

Images Courtesy
1) ThomasNet
2) Electronics-Manufacturers
3) pcgadgets
4) National Instruments
5) http://www.sselec.com/data/Thermistors.htm
6) http://www.spoerle.com/cda/distilive/0,,4476,00.html
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Principle of Working of Thermistors

As mentioned earlier the resistance of the thermistors decreases with the
increase its temperature. The resistance of thermistor is given by:
R = Ro ek
K = (1/T 1/To)
Where R is the resistance of the thermistor at any temperature T in oK
(degree Kelvin)
Ro is the resistance of the thermistors at particular reference temperature
Toin oK
is a constant whose value ranges from 3400 to 3900 depending on the
material used for the thermistors and its composition.
The thermistor acts as the temperature sensor and it is placed on the body
whose temperature is to be measured. It is also connected in the electric
circuit. When the temperature of the body changes, the resistance of the
thermistor also changes, which is indicated by the circuit directly. The
thermistor can also be used for some control which is dependent on the
temperature.

Applications
PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as
replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive
heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its
surroundings, the device heats up, causing its resistance to increase, and therefore
causing even more heating. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance
upwards, reducing the current and voltage available to the device.
PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays and
televisions. When the display unit is initially switched on, current flows through the
thermistor and degaussing coil. The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the
current flow will heat the thermistor to the point that the degaussing coil shuts off in under
a second. For effective degaussing, it is necessary that the magnitude of the alternating
magnetic field produced by the degaussing coil decreases smoothly and continuously,
rather than sharply switching off or decreasing in steps; the PTC thermistor accomplishes
this naturally as it heats up. A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable
(for its simplicity), and inexpensive.
NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of
the order of 10 K.
NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. They
present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on,
and then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during
normal operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring type
thermistors, and are purposely designed for this application.
NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor
things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data
to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard.
NTC thermistors can be also used to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging

Thermistors are similar to RTDs in that they are resistors whose resistivity changes
with temperature. The main difference between thermistors and RTDs is that they are
made of metal oxide semiconductor material that is coated with glass or epoxy. They
also come in two different types, negative temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive
temperature coefficient (PTC). NTC thermistors have a resistivity that decreases with
increasing temperature and the PTC thermistors have increased resistivity with
increasing temperature. Thermistors have a much higher sensitivity to temperature
than RTDs and a much higher nominal resistance. Thermistors are less sensitive to
lead resistance noise effects. With sensitivities on the order of 10 W/C to 10 kW/C,
thermistors are well suited to high accuracy temperature measurements. The major
disadvantages of thermistors are they have a small temperature range and a highly
nonlinear output. Below is a typical thermistor temperature curve compared to a
typical 100 RTD temperature curve.

The thermocouple is frequently used as the sensing element in a thermal sensor or switch. The principle is that
two dissimilar metals always have a contact potential between them, and this contact potential changes as the
temperature changes.
Fig. 1.1
The contact potential is not measurable for a single connection (or junction), but when two junctions are in a
circuit with the junctions at different temperatures then a voltage of a few millivolts can be detected (Fig. 1.1). This
voltage will be zero
if the junctions are at the same temperature, and will increase as the temperature of one junction relative to the
other is changed until a peak is reached.
Fig. 1.2
Fig. 1.2 A thermocouple characteristic, showing the typical curvature and the transition point at which the
characteristic reverses. A few combinations of metals (like copper/silver) have no transition, but have a very low
output.
The shape of the typical characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.2, from which you can see that the thermocouple is
useful only over a limited range of temperature due to the non-linear shape of the characteristic and the reversal
that takes place at temperatures higher than the turn-over point.
The output from a thermocouple is small, of the order of millivolts for a 10C temperature difference, and Fig. 1.3
shows typical sensitivity and useful range for a variety of the common types. Of these, the copper/constantan type
is used mainly for the lower range of temperatures and the platinum! rhodium type for the higher temperatures

Different types of thermistors

leads

Glass coated bead

2. Rod type
1. Bead

Surface Mount Thermistors

3. Probe type

lead
4. Disc type

Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement, temperature control, and
temperature compensation, because of their large change in resistance.
They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range -100degree centigrade to
+200 degree centigrade.
The measurement of the change in resistance with temperature is carried with a Wheatstone
bridge.
Here are some of the advantages of the thermistors
1) When the resistors are connected in the electrical circuit, heat is dissipated in the circuit due
to flow of current. This heat tends to increase the temperature of the resistor due to which their
resistance changes. For the thermistor the definite value of the resistance is reached at the
given ambient conditions due to which the effect of this heat is reduced.
2) In certain cases even the ambient conditions keep on changing, this is compensated by the
negative temperature characteristics of the thermistor. This is quite convenient against the
materials that have positive resistance characteristics for the temperature.
3) The thermistors are used not only for the measurement of temperature, but also for the
measurement of pressure, liquid level, power etc.
4) They are also used as the controls, overload protectors, giving warnings etc.
5) The size of the thermistors is very small and they are very low in cost. However, since their
size is small they have to be operated at lower current levels.

When an AC excitation signal is applied to the Primary Coil (P), voltages are
induced in the two Secondary Coils (S). The MAGNETIC CORE inside the
COIL WINDING ASSEMBLY provides the magnetic flux path linking the
Primary and secondary Coils.
Since the two voltages are of opposite polarity, the
Secondary Coils are connected series opposing in the
center, or Null Position. The output voltages are equal
and opposite in polarity and, therefore, the output voltage
is zero. The Null Position of an LVDT is extremely stable
and repeatable.
When the MAGNETIC CORE is displaced from the Null
Position, an electromagnetic imbalance occurs. This
imbalance generates a differential AC output voltage
across the Secondary Coils which is linearly proportional
to the direction and magnitude of the displacement.
As shown in the figure, when the MAGNETIC CORE is moved from the Null
Position, the induced voltage in the Secondary Coil, toward which the Core is
moved, increases while the induced voltage in the opposite Secondary Coil
decreases
LVDTs possess the inherent ruggedness and durability of a transformer and
truly provide infinite resolution in all types of environments. As a result of the
superior reliability and accuracy of LVDTs, they are the ideal choice for linear
motion control.

 Advantages of LVDT
1) The biggest advantage of the LVDT is that the output
obtained from it is proportional to the displacement of the
mechanical member whose displacement is being
measured.
2) LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanically since the
core is completely separated from the other parts of the
device.
3) Another important advantage of LVDT is that the
output obtained from it is fairly high and it can be
measured easily without requiring the need of the
intermediate amplification.
4) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the
changes in the temperature

Capacitive pressure transducer

The capacitive pressure transducer is based on

the principle of changing the distance between
the woo parallel plats.
In capacitive pressure transducer, the
diaphragm acts as one of the plates of the two
plate, and the other is fixed. The fixed plea and
the diaphragm raw separated by a dielectric
material.
When force is applied on thaw diaphragm, it
changes its position.
The distance of separation changes and the
capacitance changes.
The change in capacitance can be measured
using any as bridge circuit.
It can also be measured by an oscillatory circuit
where the transducer is a part of the circuit.
When the capacitance changes, the oscillators
frequency changes,.
Hence the using change in capacitance,
applied force can be measured.

The last diagram shows an application for capacitive

transducers.
The frequency of the oscillator is determined by the
LC combination.
The output of the oscillator is converted to a DC
voltage.
The value of the voltage can be displayed on a
digital meter as inches.

In the right side figure shown above, an E-type core is used for
finding the displacement. The target is also pivoted at the central
limb of the core. Thus, a single coil is divided into two turns and the
end of each coil works as the arms of an inductance bridge.
As the displacement value changes, an output signal is produced.
This is given to a CRO after amplification.
The biggest advantage of this device is that it shows a linear
relationship between the output and the displacement.

Unbonded strain guage

An unbonded strain guage consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating
medium, such as air.
The wires are kept under tension so that there are no sag and no free vibrations.
Unbonded strain guages are connected in a bridge circuit and the bridge is balanced when no
load is applied.
When an external load is applied, the resistance of the strain guage changes, causing an
unbalance of the bridge circuits, resulting in an output voltage. This output voltage is
proportional to the strain.
A displacement of the order of 50micrometers can be detected with these strain gauges.

It is observed that the curve is linear as long as the stress is kept below the elastic
limits. Normally the strain magnitude is of the order of few micrometers per meter,
which is expressed as micro strains, which is very small, it is practically difficult to
mea sure it directly. Hence, a gauge which can yield strain directly is used. Such a
gauge is known as strain gauge.
The desirable characteristics of the strain gauge are sensitivity, range of
measurement, accuracy, frequency response and the ambient environmental
conditions it can withstand.
Sensitivity is defined as the smallest value of strain that can be measured.
The maximum strain measurable and the accuracy achievable depend on the type of
gauges used and the method of gauging used.
Both stress and strain are related to the modulus of elasticity. but strain can be
measured easily compared to stress using variable resistance transducer known as
strain gauge.

Active transducers generate electric current or voltage directly in

response to environmental stimulation. Examples of active
transducers are thermocouples and piezoelectric accelerometers.
Thermocouples produce a voltage related to a temperature of two
metals and if the two junctions are at different temperatures,
electricity is generated.
Passive transducers produce a change in some passive electrical
quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a result
of stimulation. These usually require additional electrical energy for
excitation. A simple example of a passive transducer is a device
containing a length of wire and a moving contact touching the wire.
The position of the contact determines the effective length of the
wire, varying the resistance of the length of wire. Other examples of
passive transducers are strain gauges, resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.

 Working of the LVDT

The input voltage is supplied to the primary coil from the external source of power
and the output is obtained from the secondary coils. The amplitude and the phase of
the output depend on the relative coupling between the two output coils and primary
coil. The relative coupling is in turn dependent on the position of the solid core inside
the hollow core.
The figure below shows the output characteristics of the typical differential
transformer. As shown in the figure there is certain position of the core, called as the
null position, for which the output voltage is zero, this is an ideal position and is very
difficult to attain. Beyond the null position the core moves either to the left or to the
right and there is certain output voltage obtained from the differential transformer.
Within certain limits on either side of the null position the output obtained from the
differential transformer is proportional to the movement of the core. This means the
output from the differential transformer is linear with respect to the motion of the core.
The linear variable differential transformer or LVDT works within this range of motion
of the core. Thus in LVDT the voltage output obtained is linear with respect to the
motion of the core moving inside it.
In LVDT the linear range obtained through the device is dependent on the length of
the secondary coils. The magnitude of the output voltage obtained across the sides
of the null position is same but they are opposite in phase. Thus it is possible to
distinguish the two outputs from LVDT by determining the phase difference between
the output voltages.
The output obtained from the LVDT is calibrated against the input motion of the core.
The body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to this core, thus any
motion of the body gives direct output from the LVDT in the form of the displacement.

 The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is
the fundamental
sensing element for many types of sensors, including
pressure sensors,
load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc.
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a
wide choice
of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They
consist of a
pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing
material. They
operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to
stress, the
resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.

The AC voltage output by an LVDT indicates the position of the movable core. Zero volts means
that the core is centered. The further away the core is from center position, the greater
percentage of input (excitation) voltage will be seen at the output. The phase of the output
voltage relative to the excitation voltage indicates which direction from center the core is offset.
The primary advantage of an LVDT over a potentiometer for position sensing is the absence of
physical contact between the moving and stationary parts. The core does not contact the wire
windings, but slides in and out within a non conducting tube. Thus, the LVDT does not wear like
a potentiometer, nor is there the possibility of creating an arc.
Excitation of the LVDT is typically 10 volts RMS or less, at frequencies ranging from power line to
the high audio (20 kHz) range. One potential disadvantage of the LVDT is its response time,
which is mostly dependent on the frequency of the AC voltage source. If very quick response
times are desired, the frequency must be higher to allow whatever voltage-sensing circuits
enough cycles of AC to determine voltage level as the core is moved. To illustrate the potential
problem here, imagine this exaggerated scenario: an LVDT powered by a 60 Hz voltage source,
with the core being moved in and out hundreds of times per second. The output of this LVDT
wouldn't even look like a sine wave because the core would be moved throughout its range of
motion before the AC source voltage could complete a single cycle! It would be almost impossible
to determine instantaneous core position if it moves faster than the instantaneous source

voltage does.

Thermistor Applications
Temperature Measurement
Wheatstone bridge with selector switch to measure
temperature at several locations

Thermistor Applications
Temperature Control
variable resistor
for setting
desired
temperature

relay
thermistor

high gain
amplifier

Resistor is set to a desired

temperature (bridge
unbalance occurs)
Unbalance is fed into an
amplifier, which actuates a
relay to provide a source of
heat or cold.
When the thermistor
senses the desired
temperature, the bridge is
balanced, opening the relay
and turning off the heat or
cold.