Bonding in Methane CH4

Draw a dot and cross diagram for the methane

molecule
Carbon has 4 valence electrons
Write the electronic structure of carbon in terms
of s, p and d orbitals
Look back at your dot and cross diagram, do you
notice anything off?
Based on the E.C of carbon, carbon should only be
able to form 2 bonds (due to single electrons in 2
of the 2p orbitals)
How then is carbon able to achieve 4 bonds?
Answer: Hybridisation!

Hybridization?

Hybridisation
This is where atomic orbitals mix to create new
hybrid orbitals. The energies of the hybrid
orbitals are in between that of the original
orbitals.
This concept is used to explain the change that
seems to happen between the atomic orbitals
in an uncombined atom and the orbitals used
by the same atom when bonding.
Before hybridization can occur an electron
must be first promoted/excited from one
orbital to another.

Electron promotion/excitation from

2s to 2p orbital

Mixing of orbitals
After the electron is promoted, the 2s orbital
can mix with the three 2p orbitals in 3 ways:
1. sp3 hybridization 2s orbital mixes with all
three 2p orbitals, creating 4 hybrid orbitals
called sp3 orbitals
2. sp2 hybridization 2s orbital mixes with
two of the 2p orbitals, creating 3 hybrid
orbitals called sp2 orbitals
3. sp hybridization 2s orbital mixes with 1 of
the 2p orbitals, creating 2 hybrid orbitals
called sp orbitals

sp hybridization
3

Arrangement of sp3 hybrid orbitals

Bonding of hydrogen with carbon to

give methane

Bonding in ethane C2H6

Bond angle in ethane = bond angle in methane =

109.5o

sp2 hybridization
This occurs when a 2s orbital mixes
with 2 of the 2p orbitals.
1 of the 2p orbital does not mix
3 new orbitals are formed called sp2
orbitals

Arrangement of sp2 hybrid orbitals and the

p un-hybridized orbital in a carbon atom

Sp2 hybridization allows for pi bonds

e.g ethene (C2H4)

Structure of ethene

Bond angle?
Shape?

sp hybridization
This occurs when a 2s orbital mixes
with 1 of the 2p orbitals
2 of the 2p orbitals do not mix
2 new orbitals are created called sp
orbitals

Arrangement of sp hybrid orbitals and the

2p un-hybridized orbitals in a carbon atom

Sp hybridization creates triple bonds

(1 , 2) e.g ethyne (C2H2)

Structure of ethyne

Bond angle?
Shape

Resonance
Electrons in a pi bond in some molecules
are not static. The molecular orbitals can
extend over 3 or more atoms. This allows
electrons to move freely across these
atoms, leading to the term delocalization.
Resonance is the way of describing
delocalization within certain molecules or
polyatomic ions that cannot be adequately
represented by lewis diagrams
Resonance can be applied to double and
triple bonds

Resonance structures for

benzene

Delocalization of pi electrons in
benzene

Delocalization of electrons in
graphite

End of Topic 2!
Forces of Attraction!!