Aerodynamic and Flight

Control
Prepare by Tiew Foo Chuan

Atmosphere

Air Pressure

Pressure and Temperature decrease

with altitude
Altitude
(Feet)

Pressure
(mm/ Hg)

760

Temperature
(degree
Celsius)
15.0

18,000

380

-5.3

34,000

190

-62.3

48,000

95

-67.3

63,000

47

-67.04

Density Variation with Altitude

The distance between individual air particles increases with altitude resulting
in fewer particles per unit volume.

Therefore, air density decreases with an increase in altitude.

How the change of density affect the aircraft.

The higher the aircraft altitude the thinner the air. LOWER AIR

DENSITY.
As the air becomes thinner/less dense, it creates less resistance to

objects flying through it. REDUCE DRAG.

Therefore, LESS THRUST is needed to move the aircraft forward at a

given speed.
As a result, airplanes can fly more efficiently at higher altitudes with

LESS FUEL.
However if airplane is too high (>60,000ft), AIR DENSITY TOO LOW or

ZERO AIR DENSITY it will cause LIFT force highly reduce or no Lift
force. This condition is dangerous where it can cause airplane lose it
control (STALL) .

Pressure is the weight of the air pressing down on the earth surface.

The unit for pressure is pound per square inch ( psi ) and inches of mercury.

Pressure act in all direction

At high altitude , there is less air.

Temperature indicate the amount of heat ( kinetic energy ) in the

atmosphere.

It represent the speed of the molecules.

Thermometer is the instrument to measure the temperature.

Air temperature can be measured in Fahrenheit ( F ) and Celsius ( C ).

Warm air rises and cooler air sink which causes convention current.

Humility is the concentration of water vapour in the air.

Humility varies with temperature and altitude.

The temperature influence the maximum amount of water vapour that the air
can hold.

The higher altitude and lower temperature , the lower the humility.

Density is measured of air thickness.

Density varies directly with pressure.

The compresses air are more dense.

Density at sea level is 1.225 kg/m3.

Airfoils
Shape design to produce LIFT eg Wing , tail surface.
Leading

edge-

first part of aerofoil meets the oncoming air.

Trailing edge-aft end of aerofoil where the aerofoil meet.

Chord line- imaginary straight line drawn from leading edge to trailing edge.

Angle of attack- angle between chord of aerofoil and relative wind.

Different between airfoil and wing

Differences between airfoil and wings:

Airfoils are 2D, wings are 3D

Airfoils have infinite span, wings have finite span

Airflow around airfoils are 2D, airflow around wings are 3D

Wings are made of one or more airfoils , thus airfoils are also known as wing
sections.

Airfoils are not made up of wings

Type of Angle of Attack

Zero lift angle of attack the acute angle formed between the relative wind
striking an airfoil and the zero lift line of the airfoil. The chord line of the
airfoil is often substituted for the zero lift line.

Absolute angle of attack The angle of attack of an airfoil, measure from the
altitude of zero lift.

Critical angle of attack The angle of attacked at which the flow about an
airfoil changes abruptly as shown by corresponding abrupt changes in the lift
and drag/

Effective angle of attack The angle of attack at which an airfoil produces a

given lift coefficient in a two dimension flow, also referred to as effective
angle of attack.

Geometric angle of attack The acute angle formed between of the chord
line and the direction of flight.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Aspect Ratio

Four Forces

LIFT Upward Forces

WEIGHT Vertically Downwards Forces

THRUST Forward Motion.

DRAG Rearward Force

Airfoil Contamination

Speed of sound

Thespeed of soundis the distance traveled per unit time by asound

wavepropagating through anelastic medium. In dryairat 20 C (68 F), the
speed of sound is 343.2 meters per second (1,126ft/s; 1,236km/h; 768mph;
667kn), or a kilometer in2.914 sor a mile in4.689 s.

speed of soundrefers to the speed of sound waves inair.

Objects moving at speeds greater thanMach1are traveling

atsupersonicspeeds.

speed of sound at sea level =340.29 m / s

Speed of Sound

Subsonic Flight

At subsonic speed ( Less than Mach 1) air acts as if it is an incompressible

fluid.

Change its velocity and pressure but not density.

As long as it can still move , the spare between molecules will effectively not
change = density remain constant.

Sound waves radiate from all points of airframe.

Can go in all directions as are faster than aircraft.

Bernoullis Principle In Converging portion of venturi ( Inlet)

Air pressure travel faster to get to the other at same-time as bypass air.

Velocity goes up , Pressure goes down , Density constant.

Supersonic Flight

At supersonic speed ( more than Mach 1 ) air can be compressed and its
density increased.

Spare between molecules can and is reduced.

Airplane faster so sound waves pile up at the nose of the airfoil.

Creates shock wave = changes in pressure and velocity of air flow.

Speed 1.2 1.5 Mach.

Smooth and efficient flight.

Bernoullis principle :-

Converging section Pressure go up and Velocity go down , Density go up.

Diverging section Pressure go down , Velocity go up and Density go down.

Transonic Flight

At transonic speed is between 0.75 1 Mach ).

Aerodynamic center of lift move to about 50% of chord .

Sound wave form and more around = large changes in trim and stability
( control buffering ).

Aerodynamic Heating

A supersonic aircraft usually experience aerodynamic heating , which mean

that if you remove the kinetic energy of air impacting the front ( leading edge
) the kinetic energy is converted to heat.

At the speed of aircraft increases above Mach 1 , the stagnation area sees
great temperature rises , less effect at high altitude.

AS temperature increase mean it is decrease metal strength.

As we near hypersonic speeds the temperature are so high that normal

material will melt.

Research today in this area with ceramic and composite material.

Area rule

The area rule is an important concept related to the drag on an aircraft or

other body in transonic and supersonic flight.

The area rule came into being in the early 1950s when production fighter
designs began pushing ever closer to the sound barrier.

The drag on these aircraft increased substantially when the planes traveled
near Mach 1, a phenomenon known as the transonic drag rise.

This increase in drag is due to the formation of shock waves over portions of
the vehicle, which typically begins around Mach 0.8, and this drag increase
reaches a maximum near Mach 1.

Axis of a aircraft

Rudder Pedal

Autopilot

In the world of aircraft, the autopilot is more accurately described as the

automatic flight control system(AFCS).

An AFCS is part of an aircraft's avionics-- theelectronicsystems, equipment

and devices used to control key systems of the plane and its flight.

In addition to flight control systems, avionics include electronics for

communications, navigation, collision avoidance and weather.

The original use of an AFCS was to provide pilot relief during tedious stages of
flight, such as high-altitude cruising.

Advanced autopilots can do much more, carrying out even highly precise
maneuvers, such as landing an aircraft in conditions of zero visibility.

In autopilot systems, mostly can be classified according to the number of

parts, or surfaces, they control.

The three basic control surfaces that affect an airplane's attitude. The first
are theelevators, which are devices on the tail of a plane that control pitch
(the swaying of an aircraft around a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
direction of motion).

Therudderis also located on the tail of a plane. When the rudder is tilted to
starboard (right), the aircraft yaws -- twists on a vertical axis -- in that
direction.

When the rudder is tilted to port (left), the craft yaws in the opposite
direction.

Finally,aileronson the rear edge of each wing roll the plane from side to
side.

Autopilots can control any or all of these surfaces.

Asingle-axis autopilotmanages just one set of controls, usually the ailerons.

This simple type of autopilot is known as a "wing leveler" because, by

controlling roll, it keeps the aircraft wings on an even keel.

Atwo-axis autopilot manages elevators and ailerons.

Finally, athree-axis autopilotmanages all three basic control systems:

ailerons, elevators and rudder.

An autopilot is an example of acontrol system.

Control systems apply an action based on a measurement and almost always
have an impact on the value they are measuring.
Automated flight control systems work the same way.
Let's consider the example of apilotwho has activated a single-axis autopilot
-- the so-called wing leveler .

The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.

However, even in the smoothest air, a wing will eventually dip.

Gyroscopes (or other position sensors) on the wing detect this deflection and
send a signal to the autopilotcomputer.

The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the
wings are no longer level.

The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control theaircraft's
ailerons. The signal is a very specific command telling the servo to make a
precise adjustment.

Each servo has a smallelectric motorfitted with a slip clutch that, through a
bridle cable, grips the aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control
surfaces move accordingly.

As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back
toward level.

The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on
the wing detects that the wings are once again level.

The servos cease to apply pressure on the aileron cables.

This loop, shown above in the block diagram, works continuously, many times a
second, much more quickly and smoothly than a human pilot could.

Two- and three-axis autopilots obey the same principles, employing multiple
processors that control multiple surfaces.

Some airplanes even have autothrust computers to control engine thrust.

Autopilot and autothrust systems can work together to perform very complex
maneuvers.

Autopilots can and do fail. A common problem is some kind of servo failure,
either because of a badmotoror a bad connection.

A position sensor can also fail, resulting in a loss of input data to the autopilot
computer.

Fortunately, autopilots for manned aircraft are designed as a failsafe -- that is,
no failure in the automatic pilot can prevent effective employment of manual
override.

To override the autopilot, a crew member simply has to disengage the system,
either by flipping a power switch or, if that doesn't work, by pulling the
autopilotcircuitbreaker.

Pilots must know how to use every feature of an AFCS, but they must also
know how to turn it off and fly without it.

They also have to adhere to a rigorous maintenance schedule to make sure all
sensors and servos are in good working order.

The Boeing 737 is fitted with six hydraulically powered spoilers on both
wings.

These are divided into two ground spoilers and four flight spoilers.

The ground spoilers only operate while the aircraft is on the ground while
the flight spoilers operate during different phases of flight and can have
multiple functions.

The flight spoilers consist of four panels located on the aft upper wing.

There are two ways in which the flight spoilers are used and controlled
during flight operations, namely:
- manual mode control
- automatic mode control

In manual mode the spoilers are operated by pilot inputs and help
decelerate the aircraft or increase the rate of descent.

In automatic mode the spoilers respond to control wheel movement and

are used to roll the aircraft when the outer ailerons are locked-out.

When the flight spoiler panels are raised into the air stream they spoil or
reduce lift and apply drag on the wing.

The combination of these two effects (lift reduction and drag) is utilized
into providing lateral control of the airplane. Both the flight spoilers and
ground spoilers are powered by hydraulic system A and B.

Yaw Damper

The rudder is controlled by displacing the rudder pedal.

The yaw damper is to keep airplane stable around to vertical axis.

Yaw control is accomplished by hydraulically power rudder and a digital yaw

damper system.

Ayaw damperis a device used on many aircraft (usually jets and turboprops)
to damp (reduce) the rolling andyawing oscillations known as theDutch
rollmode.

The use of a yaw damper helps to provide a better ride for passengers, and on
some aircraft the yaw damper is a required piece of equipment to ensure that
the aircraft stability

Arudder travel limiter, orrudder limiter, is a controlling

device in anaircraftused to mechanically limit the
maximumrudderdeflection.

The rudder travel limiter in theAirbus A300-600is

controlled by the Feel and Limitation Computers (FLC)
maintaining sufficientyawcontrol within the entireflight
envelopand limiting excessive lateral loads on the rudder
andvertical stabilizer.

Faults with rudder travel limiters were involved in the

crashes ofIndonesia AirAsia Flight 8501and
American Airlines Flight 587.

 Agust

lockon anaircraftis a mechanism that

lockscontrol surfacesand open aircraft doors in place
while the aircraft is parked on the ground and nonoperational.

Gust

locks prevent wind from causing unexpected

movements of the control surfaces and their linked
controls inside the aircraft,

Some

gust locks are external devices attached

directly to the aircraft's control surfaces, while others
are attached to the flight controls inside the cockpit.

Mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic
method of controlling an aircraft.

They were used in early aircraft and are currently used in small aircraft
where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.

A manual flight control system uses a collection of mechanical parts such as

pushrods, tension cables, pulleys, counterweights, and sometimes chains to
transmit the forces applied to the cockpit controls directly to the control
surfaces.

Turnbucklesare often used to adjust control cable tension.

Hydro-mechanical

The complexity and weight of mechanical flight control systems increase

considerably with the size and performance of the aircraft.

With hydraulic flight control systems, the aircraft's size and performance are
limited by economics rather than a pilot's muscular strength.

At first, only-partially b A hydro-mechanical flight control system has two

parts:

Themechanical circuit, which links the cockpit controls with the hydraulic
circuits. Like the mechanical flight control system, it consists of rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains.

Thehydraulic circuit, which has hydraulic pumps, reservoirs, filters, pipes,

valves and actuators. The actuators are powered by the hydraulic pressure
generated by the pumps in the hydraulic circuit. The actuators convert
hydraulic pressure into control surface movements. The
electro-hydraulic servo valvescontrol the movement of the actuators.

Fly-by-wire control systems

A fly-by-wire (FBW) system replaces manual flight control of an aircraft with

an electronic interface.

The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals

transmitted by wires (hence the fly-by-wire term), and flight control
computers determine how to move theactuatorsat each control surface to
provide the expected response.

Commands from the computers are also input without the pilot's knowledge
to stabilize the aircraft and perform other tasks. Electronics for aircraft flight
control systems are part of the field known asavionics.

Electrical flight controls

Electrically actuated flight control control which uses electrical motor to

move control surface , still emerging technology.

Wraping use piezoelectric materials to wrap the wings of the aircraft.

Closed circuit hydraulic control hydraulic controls , each individual control

surfaces has its own full hydraulic system , eliminates a central system.

Intelligent flight control , uses neural network to determine changes in flight

dynamic and adjust control laws accordingly.

A stall is a condition inaerodynamicsand aviation wherein the angle of attack

increases beyond a certain point such that the lift begins to decrease.

Stall Warning system.

When airplane approaches the stall , the air flow across the upper cambered
surface of the wing ceases to flow smoothly. It loses contact with the wing
surface and it becomes turbulent. ( Pre stall Buffet)

Stall warning I provided by an electronic or mechanical devices that sound an

audible warning as the stall speed approached. ( Audible Warning ).

A Stick Shaker is a mechanical devices that shakes the control column to warn
of the onset of stall.

Stall warning system often involve input from broad range of senses and
system include a dedicated angle of attached sensor.

Stall warning system are designed to the stall characteristics of clean ,

contamination free surface . An ice affected wing will almost certainly stall at
a lower angle of attached.

The acute angle the wing chord makes with the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft is called the angle of incidence or the angle of wing setting.

Nitrogen System

Nitrogen Generating System which decrease the flammability of the center

fuel tank to a level equivalent to or less than the main wing tank.

The Nitrogen Generating System is an overboard inert gas system that uses an
air separation module to separate oxygen and nitrogen from the air .

After the to components of the air separation , the nitrogen rich is supplies to
the center fuel tank and oxygen rich air is vented overboard.

Nitrogen is uses to apply a push force to the left pilot elevator control
quadrant . This system is capable od delivering approximately 8 to 10 pushes
to the control column.

Automatic Ignition

The airflow through the engine become reduced to a point where an unstable
air fuel ratio occurs so that burning in the power plant combustor is not self
sufficient for the resulting unstable air fuel mixture, actuation of the ignition
system will sustain combustion until the aircraft reduces the nose high or stall
attitude to a point where the airflow through the engine is sufficient for self
sustained combustion.

an aircraft system having automatic ignition actuation which is automatically

actuated through the aircraft stall warning system when the aircraft reaches
a stall attitude above a predetermined altitude

Balancing

Flight control surfaces must be balanced to achieve desired output.

A control surfaces which is statically balanced, reduces possible flutter.

A control surface that is aerodynamically balance d to reduce the force

necessary to displace it by providing some area ahead of the hinge line.

There are two types of balancing :

i) Static Balancing
Ii) Aerodynamic Balancing.

Trim and Balance Tabs

Balance and trim tabs move in the opposite direction to the main control.

The force generated on the tab then works to assist the movement of the
main control.

The purpose of the trim tab is to adjust the main control position in flight so
that there are no feedback forces. ( trim the aircraft so that it can fly hand
off).

Flight Control System Rigging

The flight control systems need to be rigged from to time so that they carry
out their function correctly.

Flight control system rigging is carried out :i) After manufacture.

ii) When stated in the aircraft maintenance schedule.
iii) When a component in the system is changed.
iv) After a reported flying fault from the pilot.
v) Sometimes after a heavy landing or flight through turbulent air.

Rigging procedures vary depending on whether the controls are manually

operated or power operated.

It will also vary depending by a cable system , push-pull rods or fly by wire.

The AMM chapter 27 gives the proper procedure for rigging the particular
control system.

It may be necessary to refer to Chapter 20 standard Practices.

Flight Control System Rigging

The general procedure for both manually operated and power-operated flight
control system is :i) Refer to AMM.
ii) Set the control system to neutral.
iii) Check cable tensions.
iv) Do a sense of movement check.
v) Do a freedom of movement or static friction check.
vi) Do a range of movement check.
vii) Loose article check
viii) Duplicate Inspection.

Refer to AMM

Jacked and levelled the aircraft and placed in the rigging position.

Stable aircraft temperature , +- 3 C along the cable for at least one hours.

Tripped off appropriate electrical circuits and place warning notices on the
control surfaces and circuit breaker.

Release hydraulic pressure from the hydraulic system accumulators.

Before disconnecting drive shaft , marks the angular position of the joints to
endure correct alignment on reconnection.

Set the Control System to Neutral

Place rigging pins or rigging fixtures on the pilot controls at the control
surface end of the system an intermediate able-quadrants or linkages in the
system.

Ensure the the whole control system is in neutral , including :

i) PFCUs and artificial feel units.
ii) Cockpit indicators.
iii) Trimming systems
iv) Tabs and trim tab position indicators.

Cable Tension Check

When new control cables are fitted , tighten to a higher than normal cable
tension , then operated through their full travel for a given number of times.

When rigging is complete , make sure that each rigging pin can be removed
and replaced easily. This shows that cables are correctly adjusted for length
and correctly tensioned.

Remove all rigging pins and fixtures.

Recheck cable tensions and control neutral settings.

Sense Check

The cockpit controls are moved and a check made to make sure that the
control surfaces move in the correct sense.

The control surface position indicator in the cockpit must also move in the
correct sense.

On most large aircraft the spoilers move asymmetrically when the ailerons
are moved.

Correct sense of movement under autopilot commend must also be checked.

Freedom of Movement Check

Pull the control system through its full range of movement using a spring
balance attached to the control column and rudder pedals.

The force require to operate the controls should not exceed that given in the
table.

Range of Movement Check

Move the pilot control in both directions from the neutral position and
measure the range of travel using a ruler.

I incorrect, adjust the correct surface stops (primary stops) . The cockpit
control stops (secondary stops) are then adjusted to a specified clearance.

Check the controls in power and manual.

Ensure the cockpit indicators give correct indications.

Lock all the system points where previous adjustment have been made.

Loose Article Check

This should be done after every job has been completed on an aircraft.

Inspect the area to make sure that no tools, spares, locking wire, cleaning
cloths etc. have been left behind.

Do a tool check outside the aircraft.

Duplicate Inspection

All the parts of a flying control system are generally classed as VITAL POINTS
and if disturbed will require a duplicate inspection.

A vital point is any point on an aircraft at which a single incorrect assembly

could cause loss of the aircraft and / or fatalities.

A duplicate inspection is an inspection which is first made and certified by

one qualified person and then made and certified by a second qualified
person.