OPPOSITIONAL

INFERENCE
Opposite or Opposed
Propositions
Are propositions that cannot be simultaneously true
or that cannot be simultaneously false, or that
cannot be either simultaneously true or
simultaneously false.
This impossibility of being simultaneously true, or
false, or either true or false is the essential note of
logical opposition.
Propositions are opposed if they have the same
subject and predicate but differ from one another in
quality or quantity, or both in quality and quantity.

A
Every
man is
seated.

E
CONTRARIE
S

No man
is
seated.

(Superi
Subaltern
or)
ant
Subaltern
(Subalter
ate
(Inferi
n)
or)

(Superi
Subaltern
or)
ant
Subaltern
(Subalter
ate
(Inferi
n)
or)

Some
man is
seated.

subcontrari
es

Some man
is not
seated.

Contradictory Opposition
Two propositions are contradictories if one is the denial
or negation of the other, that is, if they cannot be both
true and they cannot be both false.
It is the opposition of a pair of propositions so related
to one another that they cannot be either
simultaneously true or simultaneously false. The truth
of one excludes the truth of the other, and falsity of
one
excludeattributive
the falsitypropositions
of the other.having the same
Quantified
subject and predicate but differing in both quality and
quantity (A & O, E & I) are contradictories
The Rules for
Contradictories:
1.) If one of two contradictory propositions is true,
the other is false.
2.) If one is false, the other is true.

Contrary Opposition
Two propositions are said to be contraries if they
cannot be both true, that is, if the truth of either one
entails that the other is false.
The opposition of a pair of propositions so related to
one another that they cannot be simultaneously true
but they can be simultaneously false. The truth of one
excludes the truth of the other, but the falsity of one
does not exclude the falsity of the other.
Universal attributive, or categorical propositions having
the same subject and predicate but differing in quality
(A & E) are contraries.
The Rules for Contraries:
1.) If one of two contraries is true, the other is
false.
2.) If one is false, the other is doubtful.

Subcontrary Opposition
Two propositions are said to be subcontraries if they
cannot both be false, although they may both be true.
Subcontrary opposition is the opposition of two
propositions that cannot be simultaneously false but
can be simultaneously true: if one is false, the other
must be true; but both of them can be true.
Particular propositions having the same subject and
predicate but differing in quality (I & O) are
subcontraries.
The Rules for
Subcontraries:
1.) If one of two subcontraries is false, the other is
true.
2.) If one is true, the other is doubtful.

Subalternate
Two propositions that have the same subjects and the
same predicate terms, and agree in quality but differ
only in quantity are subalterns.
Subalterns are not, strictly speaking, opposites at all
because neither the truth nor the falsity of either of
them excludes the truth or falsity of the other. Both of
them can be true and both of them can be false.
Propositions having the same subject, predicate and
quality but differing in quantity (A & I, E & O) are
subalternates.
The
Rules for
Subalternates:
1.) If the universal is true, the particular is true; but
if the universal is false, the particular is doubtful.
2.) If the particular is true, the universal is
doubtful; but if the particular is false, the universal
is false.

Exercises
:

Give the contradictory, contrary, subcontrary and

subaltern of each of the following (if it has one);
and supposing that the original proposition is true,
state whether each of the opposites is true, false or
doubtful.
1. All men
are mortal

2. No cat is a dog
3. Some house is white.
4. Some house is not white.
5. John is a very wealthy man.
6. If the sun is shining, it is day.
7. John says he is not going.
8. He went to the hospital because he was sick.

Exercises Supposing that the propositions after each of the

numbers are true or false as indicated, state
:

whether the propositions following them are true,

false or doubtful, and tell what kind of opposition is
illustrated
by each
example.
1. If it were
false that
all women
are human beings,
That no women are human beings would be
That some women are human beings would be
That some women are not human beings would
be
2. If it were true that every cat is a dog,
That no cat is a dog would be
That some cat is a dog would be
That some cat is not a dog would be

3. If some aliens are seditious is true,

That all aliens are seditious would be
That no aliens are seditious would be
That some aliens are not seditious would be
4. If it is true that all horses cant jump,
That all horses can jump would be
That some horses can jump would be
That some horses cant jump would be

State the kind of opposition illustrated in each

example; and, whenever an inference has been made,
state whenever it is valid or invalid.
1. All hounds are dogs; therefore some hounds are
dogs.
2. Some dogs are hounds; therefore some dogs are
not hounds.
3. Some dogs are not hounds; therefore some dogs
are hounds.
4. It is false that all men are angels; therefore it is
true that no men are angels.
5. If it is true that all jewelers have jewels to
sell, it is false that no jeweler has jewel to sell.
6. If it were true that no jewelers sold jewels, it
would be false that some jeweler did not sell
them.
7. It is false that no jeweler sells jewels;
therefore it is true that some jeweler does sell
jewels.

8. I always tell my salesmen not to be discouraged if

the first couple of customers on a block give them
trouble. They know that therell be at least few soft
touches
the end.that since some labor unions
9.
I toldnear
the workers
are not honestly managed, it follows that some are
honestly managed, and that ours was one of
these.
10.
Every single American is desirous to improve
the living conditions of the lower classes. America
they say, will then be a true democracy, with all the
citizens living, if not on similar levels of luxury,
wealth, and importance, at least on an equal basis
of freedom. But unfortunately several big
businessmen, controlling monopolies, and thus able
to ruin thousands of other businessmen, do not
desire to help the poor. Therefore, probably little
improvements
until
the
power of
11. If it is false will
thatbe
hecarried
neitherout
plays
the
saxophone
this
minority
is overcome.
nor the
clarinet,
it must be true that he plays either a
saxophone, or a clarinet, or both a saxophone and a
clarinet.

12. If it is false that beggars should be choosers, it

follows that beggars should not be choosers.
13. Suppose it is false that John should drink milk; it
follows that John should not drink it.
14. If the speaker is not telling the truth, he must
be lying.
15. It is a fallacy to argue from the variety of
system and the extravagant character of certain
philosophies to the impotence of all
metaphysics. If the system of one philosopher is
to great extent the expression of his personal
temperament, it does not necessary follow that
alike judgment can be passed on the system of
another philosopher: if some of the arguments
of a given philosopher are sophistical, it does
not follow that all his arguments are
sophistical.