Human Physiology:

Cell Structure and

BY
Function
DR BOOMINATHAN Ph.D.

Sc.,(Med. Bio, JIPMER), M.Sc.,(FGS, Israel), Ph.D (NUS, SINGAPOR

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

Source: Collected from different sources on the internet-http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/cell/cell.html

Anatomy, physiology,
Anatomy is the science of the structure
Physiology is the science of the function
Anatomy and physiology are closely
linked, in particular physiology cannot
be understood without anatomy
In many respects, both are closed
sciences

Physiology
Some important moments:
17th century: William Harvey first describes
the closed circulation
19th century: Claude Bernard formulates the
modern version of homeostasis the
constancy of the internal milieu
19th century: Johannes Muller formulates the
law of specific nerve energy

Physiology
Some important moments:
17th century: William Harvey first describes
the closed circulation
19th century: Claude Bernard formulates the
modern version of homeostasis the
constancy of the internal milieu
19th century: Johannes Muller formulates the
law of specific nerve energy
In general, a slow development of our modern
view of the function of the body

Systems
physiology:
Missing from the
scheme:
Structure and motion:
Skeletal system
Muscles
Integratory systems:
Nervous system
Hormones

Cell Structure
& Function

Source: http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/cell/cell.html

Unit-I Outline
Levels of Cellular Organization & functionOrganelles, tissues, organs & systems.
Cell theory
Properties common to all cells
Cell size and shape why are cells so small?
Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells
Organelles and structure in all eukaryotic cell
Organelles in plant cells but not animal

Cell junctions

History of Cell Theory

mid 1600s Anton van
Leeuwenhoek
Improved microscope, observed many living cells

mid 1600s Robert Hooke

Observed many cells

1850 Rudolf Virchow

Proposed that all cells come from existing
cells

Cell Theory
Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert
Hooke.
Early studies of cells were conducted by
- Mathias Schleiden (1838)
- Theodor Schwann (1839)
Schleiden and Schwann proposed the
Cell Theory.
9

Cell Theory
1. All organisms consist of 1 or
more cells.
2. Cell is the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing
cells.

Cell Theory
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units
of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells
through cell division.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
All cells today represent a continuous line
of descent from the first living cells.

12

Cell Theory
Cell size is limited.
-As cell size increases, it takes longer
for material to diffuse from the cell
membrane to the interior of the cell.
Surface area-to-volume ratio:
as a cell increases in size, the volume
increases 10x faster than the
surface area
13

Cell Theory

14

Cell Theory
Microscopes are required to visualize
cells.
Light microscopes can resolve
structures that are 200nm apart.
Electron microscopes can resolve
structures that are 0.2nm apart.
15

Cell Theory
All cells have certain structures in
common.
1. genetic material in a nucleoid or
nucleus
2. cytoplasm a semifluid matrix
3. plasma membrane a phospholipid
bilayer
16

Definition of Cell

A cell is the smallest unit that

is capable of performing life
functions.

Observing Cells

(4.1)

Light microscope
Can observe living cells in true color
Magnification of up to ~1000x
Resolution ~ 0.2 microns 0.5 microns

Observing Cells

(4.1)

Electron Microscopes
Images are black and white may be
colorized
Magnifcation up to ~100,000
Transmission electron microscope
(TEM)
2-D image

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

3-D image

SEM

TEM

Examples of Cells
Amoeba Proteus
Plant Stem

Bacteria
Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell

Two Types of Cells

Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic
Do not have
structures
surrounded by
membranes
Few internal
structures
One-celled
organisms,
Bacteria
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html

Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells lack a membranebound nucleus.
-genetic material is present in the
nucleoid
Two types of prokaryotes:
-archaea
-bacteria
24

Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells possess
-genetic material in the nucleoid
-cytoplasm
-plasma membrane
-cell wall
-ribosomes
-no membrane-bound organelles
25

Prokaryotic Cells

26

Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cell walls
-protect the cell and maintain cell shape
Bacterial cell walls
-may be composed of peptidoglycan
-may be Gram positive or Gram negative
Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.
27

Prokaryotic Cells
Flagella
-present in some prokaryotic cells
-used for locomotion
-rotary motion propels the cell

28

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Prokaryotic Cells are smaller and
simpler in structure than
eukaryotic cells.
Typical prokaryotic cell is __________
Prokaryotic cells do NOT have:
Nucleus
Membrane bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cell

TEM Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic
Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
Most living organisms
Plant

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html

Animal

Typical Animal Cell

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif

Plant Cell

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/plant3.gif

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic
cells
-compartmentalize many cellular
functions within organelles and the
endomembrane system
-possess a cytoskeleton for support
and to maintain cellular structure
36

Eukaryotic Cells

37

Eukaryotic Cells

38

Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
-stores the genetic material of the
cell in the form of multiple, linear
chromosomes
-surrounded by a nuclear envelope
composed of 2 phospholipid bilayers
-in chromosomes DNA is organized
with proteins to form chromatin
39

Eukaryotic Cells

40

Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in the
cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA and
proteins
-found within the cytosol of the
cytoplasm and attached to internal
membranes
41

Cell Structure
All Cells have:
an outermost plasma
membrane
genetic material in the form of
DNA
cytoplasm with ribosomes

Cell Parts
Organelles

Surrounding the Cell

Cell Membrane
Outer membrane of
cell that controls
movement in and out
of the cell
Double layer

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Cell Wall
Most commonly
found in plant cells
& bacteria
Supports &
protects cells

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Inside the Cell

Nucleus
Directs cell activities
Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
Contains genetic material - DNA

Nuclear Membrane
Surrounds nucleus
Made of two layers
Openings allow
material to enter
and leave nucleus

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Chromosomes
In nucleus
Made of DNA
Contain
instructions for
traits &
characteristics

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Nucleolus
Inside nucleus
Contains RNA to
build proteins

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Cytoplasm
Gel-like mixture
Surrounded by cell membrane
Contains hereditary material

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Moves materials
around in cell
Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded
in surface

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Ribosomes
Each cell contains
thousands
Make proteins
Found on
ribosomes &
floating throughout
the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Mitochondria
Produces energy through
chemical reactions
breaking down fats &
carbohydrates
Controls level of water
and other materials in
cell
Recycles and
decomposes proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates
http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Golgi Bodies
Protein 'packaging
plant'
Move materials
within the cell
Move materials out
of the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Lysosome
Digestive 'plant' for
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
Transports undigested
material to cell
membrane for removal
Cell breaks down if
lysosome structure
is disrupted.

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Vacuoles
Membrane-bound
sacs for storage,
digestion, and
waste removal
Contains water
solution
Help plants
maintain shape

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Chloroplast
Usually found in
plant cells
Contains green
chlorophyll
Where
photosynthesis
takes place

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

1. Plasma Membrane
All membranes are phospholipid
bilayers with embedded proteins
The outer plasma membrane
isolates cell contents
controls what gets in and out of the
cell
receives signals

2. Genetic material in the

form of DNA
Prokaryotes no membrane
around the DNA (no nucleus)
Eukaryotes DNA is within a
membrane (there is nucleus)

3. Cytoplasm with
ribosomes
Cytoplasm fluid area inside
outer plasma membrane and
outside DNA region
Ribosomes make proteins

Cell Structure
All Cells have:
an outermost plasma
membrane
genetic material in the form of
DNA
cytoplasm with ribosomes

Why Are Cells So Small?

(4.2)

Cells need sufficient surface area to

allow adequate transport of nutrients
in and wastes out.
As cell volume increases, so does the
need for the transporting of nutrients
and wastes.

Why Are Cells So Small?

However, as cell volume increases
the surface area of the cell does not
expand as quickly.
If the cells volume gets too large it
cannot transport enough wastes out or
nutrients in.

Thus, surface area limits cell

volume/size.

Why Are Cells So Small?

Strategies for increasing surface
area, so cell can be larger:
Frilly edged.
Long and narrow..

Round cells will always be small.

Eukaryotic Cells
Structures in all eukaryotic cells
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endomembrane System
Endoplasmic reticulum smooth and rough
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles

Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton

NUCLEUS

CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

ROUGH ER

MITOCHONDRIO
N

CYTOPLASM

SMOOTH ER

CENTRIOLES
GOLGI BODY
PLASMA
MEMBRAN
E

LYSOSOME

VESICLE
Fig. 4-15b, p.59

Nucleus

(4.5)

Function isolates the cells genetic

material, DNA
DNA directs/controls the activities of the
cell
DNA determines which types of RNA are
made
The RNA leaves the nucleus and directs the
synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm at a
______________

Nucleus
Structure
Nuclear envelope
Two Phospholipid bilayers with
protein lined pores
Each pore is a ring of 8 proteins
with an opening in the center of the
ring

Nucleoplasm fluid of the nucleus

Nuclear porebilayer facing cytoplasm Nuclear envelope

bilayer
facing
nucleoplasm

Fig. 4-17, p.61

Nucleus
DNA is arranged in chromosomes
Chromosome fiber of DNA with
proteins attached
Chromatin all of the cells DNA
and the associated proteins

Nucleus
Structure, continued
Nucleolus
Area of condensed DNA
Where ribosomal subunits are made
Subunits exit the nucleus via nuclear
pores

ADD
THE
LABELS

Endomembrane System

(4.6

4.9)

Series of organelles responsible for:

Modifying protein chains into their
final form
Synthesizing of lipids
Packaging of fully modified proteins
and lipids into vesicles for export or
use in the cell
And more that we will not cover!

Structures of the
Endomembrane System
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope
Two forms - smooth and rough

Transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The ER is continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope
There are 2 types of ER:
Rough ER has ribosomes attached
Smooth ER no ribosomes attached

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Network of flattened membrane sacs
create a maze
RER contains enzymes that recognize and
modify proteins

Ribosomes are attached to the outside

of the RER and make it appear rough

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Function RER
Proteins are modified as they move
through the RER
Once modified, the proteins are
packaged in transport vesicles for
transport to the Golgi body

Endomembrane System
Smooth ER (SER)
Tubular membrane structure
Continuous with RER
No ribosomes attached

Function SER
Lipids are made inside the SER
fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..

Lipids are packaged in transport vesicles

and sent to the Golgi

Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
-membrane-bound structures with
various functions depending on the cell
type
There are different types of vacuoles:
-central vacuole in plant cells
-contractile vacuole of some protists
-vacuoles for storage
82

Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout
the cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
83

Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
-membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the
membrane gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted,
sent to lysosomes or plasma
membrane
84

Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign
substances
85

Endomembrane System

Endomembrane System
Golgi apparatus
-flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes
-packaging and distribution of
materials to different parts of the cell
-synthesis of cell wall components

87

88

Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
-membrane bound vesicles
containing digestive enzymes to
break down macromolecules
-destroy cells or foreign matter that
the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis

89

90

Endomembrane System
Microbodies
-membrane bound vesicles
-contain enzymes
-not part of the endomembrane system
-glyoxysomes in plants contain
enzymes for converting fats to
carbohydrates
-peroxisomes contain oxidative
enzymes and catalase
91

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
Stack of flattened membrane sacs

Function Golgi apparatus

Completes the processing substances
received from the ER
Sorts, tags and packages fully processed
proteins and lipids in vesicles

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus receives transport
vesicles from the ER on one side of
the organelle
Vesicle binds to the first layer of the
Golgi and its contents enter the Golgi

Golgi Apparatus
The proteins and lipids are modified as
they pass through layers of the Golgi
Molecular tags are added to the fully
modified substances
These tags allow the substances to be
sorted and packaged appropriately.
Tags also indicate where the substance is to
be shipped.

Golgi Apparatus

Transport Vesicles
Transport Vesicles
Vesicle = small membrane bound sac
Transport modified proteins and lipids
from the ER to the Golgi apparatus (and
from Golgi to final destination)

Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
DNA directs RNA synthesis RNA
exits nucleus through a nuclear
pore ribosome protein is made
proteins with proper code enter
RER proteins are modified in
RER and lipids are made in SER
vesicles containing the proteins and
lipids bud off from the ER

Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
ER vesicles merge with Golgi body
proteins and lipids enter Golgi
each is fully modified as it passes
through layers of Golgi modified
products are tagged, sorted and
bud off in Golgi vesicles

Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
Golgi vesicles either merge with
the plasma membrane and release
their contents OR remain in the cell
and serve a purpose

Vesicles
Vesicles - small membrane bound sacs
Examples
Golgi and ER transport vesicles
Peroxisome
Where fatty acids are metabolized
Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified

Lysosome
contains digestive enzymes
Digests unwanted cell parts and other
wastes

Lysosomes

(4.10)

The lysosome is an example of an

organelle made at the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi packages digestive enzymes in a
vesicle. The vesicle remains in the cell
and:
Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts
Merges with food vacuoles and digest the
contents
Figure 4.10A

Lysosomes

(4.11)

Tay-Sachs disease occurs when the

lysosome is missing the enzyme
needed to digest a lipid found in
nerve cells.
As a result the lipid accumulates and
nerve cells are damaged as the
lysosome swells with undigested lipid.

Mitochondria

(4.15)

Function synthesis of ATP

3 major pathways involved in ATP
production
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron transport system (ETS)

Mitochondria
Structure:
~1-5 microns
Two membranes
Outer membrane
Inner membrane - Highly folded
Folds called cristae

Intermembrane space (or outer

compartment)
Matrix
DNA and ribosomes in matrix

Mitochondria

Mitochondria

(4.15)

Function synthesis of ATP

3 major pathways involved in ATP
production
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle - matrix
3. Electron transport system (ETS) intermembrane space

Mitochondria
TEM

Mitochondria
Mitochondria
-organelles present in all types of
eukaryotic cells
-contain oxidative metabolism
enzymes for transferring the energy
within macromolecules to ATP
-found in all types of eukaryotic cells

110

Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers
called cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located
between the two membranes
-contain their own DNA
111

Mitochondria

112