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CHAPTER

Nouns

Noun
a w0rd used to identify any of a
class of people, places, plants,
animals, things, events, or ideas
common noun, or to name a
particular one of these proper
noun.

Characteristics of Noun
1. They have plural and possessive forms.

2. They function as subject, subjective


complement, direct object, indirect object,
object of the preposition, object of the
verbal, appositive, and normative address.

3. They have such endings as ion, ation, er,


ar, or, ee, ist, ia, ian, an, ant, ent, ment, ence,
ance, acy, cy, dom, hood, ness, ry, ary, ism,
ure, um, ium, arium, on, ile, ite, ish, ad, ade,
ette, et, let, ling, etc.
4. They are positioned before verbs, after
linking verbs, after transitive verbs, after
prepositions, after other nouns, after
adjectives, and in other common ways.

6. They are combined with other nouns,


verbs, and adjectives to form solid
compounds, hyphenated compounds,
and spaced compounds.

7. They usually replaced by pronouns.

Proper Noun
A noun that refers to a specific
person, place, thing, event or
idea.
Ex.
Galileo Galilee, Simba, Deep Blue,
Death March, Marxism

Common Noun
A noun that refers to a generic
person, place, thing, event, or
idea.
Ex.
scientist, river, island, lion, computer,
revolution, ideology

Concrete Noun
A noun that refers to a generic
person, place, thing, event, or
idea.
Ex.
blackboard, bluebird, greenhouse,
yellow ball, greyhound, body odor

Abstract Noun
A noun that refers to
something that cannot be
perceived by the senses.
Ex.
White lie, ecstasy, principle,
philosophy, value, harmony, love,
integrity

Collective Noun
A noun that refers to collection
of persons, places, things, or
ideas.
Ex.
Entourage, bouquet, company, troupe,
exaltation, parliament

Non-collective Noun
A noun that does not refers to
collection of persons, places,
things, or ideas.
Ex.
Bridegroom, carnation, balladeer, ballerina,
bishop, lawmaker, representatives

Count Noun
A noun that refers to
something that can be
counted.
Ex.
Journal, message, oil, mineral water,
fax machine, kilowatt, mega byte

Non-count Noun/Mass Noun


A noun that cannot be counted, but
can be measured.
Ex.
Sugar, powder oil, mineral water, rice,
dry ices. Top soil

Singular Noun
A noun that refers to only one
person, places, thing, event or
idea.
Ex.
Camouflage, diary, tooth, louse,
sheep, apendix

Plural Word
A noun that refers to places
things we more person
Ex.
Camouflage, diaries, teeth, lice,
shee, apendices

Simple Noun
A noun that is composed of
only one word.
Ex.
Editor, officer, book, tooth, bank,
pen

Compound Noun
A noun that is composed of
two or words.
Ex.
Editor-in-chief, Officer-in-charge,
bookworm, tooth pick, bank run,
pentel pen

Masculine Noun
A noun that refers to a person,
animal or thing of the male
kind.
Ex.
Duke, aviator, boy, songster, hero,
chauffeur, fianc

Feminine Noun
A noun that refers to a
person, animal, or thing of
the female kind.
Ex.
Duchess, aviatrix, girl, songstress,
heroine, chauffeuse, fiancee

Common Noun
A noun that refers to a person,
animal, or thing of either the male
or the female kind
Ex.
Ruler, pilot, singer, character, driver,
lover, monarch

Neuter Noun
A noun that refers to an
inanimate object, idea, or thing of
neither the male nor the female
kind
Ex.
illness, test book, footprint, sand
castle, snowstorm

Subject

A noun that serves as the topic


of a sentence
Ex.
ARS is lethal illness.
God is omniponent

Direct Object
A noun that receives directly
the action of the verb
Ex.
Many people dread SARS. WE
Worship GOD.

Indirect Object
A noun that receives indirectly
the action of the verb.
Ex.
He give the patient a mask for
SARS

Object of the Preposition


A noun that follows a
preposition
Ex.
Economies suffer because of SARS.
We are always forgiven by god.

Object of Verbal
A noun that serves as an
object of a gerund, participle,
or infinitive
Ex.
Washing hands frequently is a
way of avoiding SARS.
To love God is to love ones
enemies.

Objective Complement
A noun that serves to
complement a direct object.
Ex.
They called the killer pneumonia SARS.
He considers himself God.

Subjective Complement
A noun that serves to
complement a subject.
Ex.
That deadly desease is SARS.
Love is God.

Nominative Address
A noun that is used in direct
address
Ex.
SARS what have you done?
God, have mercy on us.

Appositive
A noun that identifies or
describes another noun before
it
Ex.
The killer disease, SARS, affected the
whole world.
The creator of mankind, God, is all
loving.

GENDER
MASCULINE

FEMININE

adult person

man

woman

chair person

chairman

chairwoman

chicken

rooster

hen

child

boy

girl

child

son

daughter

Child-in-law

Son-in-law

Daughter-in-law

cleaner

janitor

Janitress

Clothes designer

couturier

couturiese

COMMON

Clothes washer

laundryman

Laundrywoman

cow

bull

Debut celebrator

debutant

deer

stag

Doe

deity

god

goddess

dog

dog

bitch

driver

chauffeur

chauffeuse

Engaged one

Fianc

Fiance

Food server or
attendant
Go-between

Waiter

waitress

mediator

mediatrix

godchild

godson

goddaughter

godparent

godfather

godmother

She-saw
Debutante

grandchild
hairstylist

grandson
coiffeur

granddaughter
coiffeuse

pilot

aviator

aviatrix

poet

poet

poetess

priest

priest

prietress

protagonist

hero

heroin

salesperson

salesman

saleswoman

servant

Man-serxant

Woman-servant

sheep

ram

eve

sibling

brother

sister

Sibling-in-law

Brother-in-law

Sister-in-law

singer

songster

songstress

Stage performer

Stage actor

Stage actress

teacher

instructor

instructress

teenager

lad

lass

dancer

danseur

danceuse

thespian

actor

actress

Un married one

bachelor

bachelorette

Wed one

groom

bride

Widow one

widower

widower

PERSONAL NOUNS

THING
INVOLVED

GIVER

RECEIVER

award

sponsor

awardee

benefit

benefactor

beneficiary

care

Care giver

Cared one

communication

sender

sendee

consignment

consignor

consignee

donation

donor

donee

examination

examiner

examinee

grant

grantor

grantee

inheritance

inheritor

heir

lease

lesson

lessee

loan

creditor

debtor

\love

lover

beloved

merchandise

seller

buyer

payment

payor

payee

protector

protector

protegee

test

tester

testee

training

trainor

trainee

trust

trustor

trustee

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
COLLECTIVE
NOUNS

ANIMAL

COLLECTIVE
NOUNS

ANIMAL

barren

mules

hill

ruffs

bevy

quails

host

sparrow

bevy

roes

kindel

kittens

brace

bucks

labour

moles

brood

covey

leap

leopards

brood

hens

litter

cubs

bunch

wigeon

litter

whelps

bunch

teal

murmuration

starlings

cast

hawks

muster

peacucks

cete

badgers

nest

rabbits

Charm

goldfinches

nide

pheasamt

chattering

choughs

herd

asses

clowder

cats

pack

grouse

collony

gulls

cry

hounds

covert

coots

herd

wolves

covey

partriges

padding

ducks

cowardise

curs

plump

wildfowl

desrt

lapwings

plod

whiting

dopping

sheldrake

pride

lions

Down

hares

rag

colts

herd

cattle

richness

marten

exaltation

larks

run

poultry

fail

woodcocks

run

whales

string

racehorse

Gum

porpoises

flight

Wigeon flying

siege

bitterns

flight

doves

siege

herons

flight

swallows

glean

hearrings

flight

dunlins

haul

fish

knob

pochards

shrewdness

apes

flight

pigeons

geins

Geese flying

flock

sheep

skulk

foxes

gaggle

geese

sute

mallareds

flight

birds

sounder

boars

gaggle

Ground geese

sounder

swine

gang

wlk

stand

plovers

harrase

horses

stud

mares

herd

antelopes

swarm

insects

herd

buffaloes

swarm

bees

herd

cranes

cloud

groats

herd

curlews

tok

capercailzies

herd

deer

team

Ducks flying

Herd

giraffs

troop

kangaroos

tribe

goats

troop

monkeys

herd

seals

walk

snipe

Bevy

swans

watch

nightingales

herd

pones

drove

oxen

herd

swine

CHAPTER
2

PRONOUNS

Pronouns

are words that take place of nouns.


Unlike nouns which are numerous ,
pronouns are limited in number.
Because they are used as noun
substitute, they exhibit most of the
characteristics that nouns possess.
However pronouns are distinct because
of the following features:

1.They have person, aside from number gender,


and case .
2.They function as subject (that which is talked
about in the sentence),subjective complement
(that which completes the meaning of the
subject), direct object (direct receiver of the
action of the verb), indirect object (indirect
receiver of the action of the verb), object of the
preposition (that which follows the preposition),
object of the verbal (that which follows a verbal),
and appositive (that which identifies the noun
before it).

3.They do not have such endings as nouns do have in as much


as they are not form-class word(they are not suffixed);
4.hey are positioned before verbs(subjects),after linking verbs
(subjective complements), after transitive verb (direct and in
direct objects), after prepositions (objects of preposition), after
other nouns (objective complements and appositives), after
adjectives (headwords), and in other common ways;
5.They are use to begin sentences; therefore, they are not
introduce by other words, for example , noun-makers:
6.They are rarely used to combine with other parts of speech to
form compounds, for example, he-man and she-bear; and
7.They serve to replace nouns, not other parts of speech.

Classification of
Pronouns
Personal Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to one or more
persons , place, things, even or ideas.

Ex.
I, you, she, it, we, they

Relative Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to
introduce a relative clause..
Ex.
The room where I study is cozy.
Lets meet at a time when were both
free.
The lady who is in red is the celebrator.

Demonstrative Pronoun
A pronoun that gives indefinite
reference to one or more persons,
place, things, events, or ideas.
Ex.
This is a good place for a rest.
Dont you know that?
Such is a nice idea.

Interrogative
Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to
introduce an interrogative
sentence
Ex.
Who gave you the authority to
print those?
What is the date today?
Whose pen is this ?

Reflexive Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to
indicate that the doer and the
receiver of the action are the
same .
Ex.
Youre selfish that you love yourself
too much.

Intensive Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to show
emphasis .
Ex.
I myself cooked this dish.

Reciprocal Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to show
reciprocity of action.
Ex.
We are all brothers that we
have to take care of one
another

Singular Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to only
one person, place, thing,
event or idea
Ex.
I am a Filipino.

Plural Noun
A pronoun that refers to two or
more persons, places, things,
events or ideas
Ex.
We are Filipinos.

First-person Pronoun
A personal pronoun that
refers to the speaker or
person speaking.
Ex.
I love the Philippines.

Second-person
Pronoun

A personal pronoun that to the


addresses refers or person
spoken to .
Ex.
You have to protect the environment.

Third-person Pronoun
A personal pronoun that refers
to the person spoken of or
about .
Ex.
He enjoys playing basketball.

Objective Pronoun
A pronoun that is used as
direct object, indirect object,
object of the preposition,
object of the verbal, or object
complement
Ex.
I will see him or her.

Possessive Pronoun
A pronoun that indicates
possession
Ex.
This land is mine

Masculine Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to the
person, animals, or thing of
the male kind
Ex.
Juliet loved him so much because of
his goodness.

Feminine Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to a person,
animal, or thing of the female kind
Ex.
Her parents and siblings depend upon
her.

Neuter pronoun
A pronoun that refers to an
inanimate object, idea, or thing
of neither the male nor the
female kind
Ex.
It is saleable because of its durability.

PERSON AND CASES OF


PRONOUNS
PERSON AND
NUMBERS
FIRST PERSON
SINGULAR

NOMINATIVE

POSSESSIVE OR
GENITIVE

OBJECTIVE

MY/MINE

ME

PLURAL

WE

OUR/OURS

US

SECOND PERSON

SINGULAR

YOU

PLURAL

YOU

THIRD PERSON

SINGULAR

HE/SHE/IT

HIS/HER/HERS/ITS

HIM/HER/IT

PLURAL

THEY

THEIR/THEIRS

THEM

PRONOUN ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT RULES


RULES

EXAMPLES

PronounS and antecedent agreement in number


( singular or plural )

a proprietor take care of his business


proprietors take care of their business
a company has its go
companies have their logos

Pronouns and antecedent agree person ( first


second or third )

we receive our monthly salaries on time


you receive your monthly salaries on time
he receive his monthly salaries on time
they receive their monthly salaries on time

Pronouns and antecedent agree in gender


( masculine , feminine.cemmon or neuter ) note
that singular nouns having a common gender
take masculine pronouns to avoid a sexists
language use the plural form or the combination
of masculine and feminine form

Mario must do his tasks dutifully


Maria must do her taks dutifully
A employee must do his tasks dutifully
An employee must do his or her tasks dutifully
Employee must do their tasks dutifully
A voter should casts his or her vote early

When the antecedent are joined by the


Julio and Julia submitted their proposal report
conjunction and the pronoun is in the plural form Julio , Julia ,and I submitted our proposal report
You and your groupmates submitted your proposal
report

CHAPTER
3
VERBS

VERBS
Compared to nouns , verbs are
major words: however, they are
less numerous. They differ from
other parts of speech because
their function is to assert
actions with condition ,and
states of being.

Tense

Use

Examples

SIMPLE
Past

Present

Future

To Indicate a past
action or condition

Joker Took the


board exam
yesterday ( Past
action)

To Indicate a
present action or
condition

We Talk about
electoral reforms
(Present Action)

To Indicate a future
action or condition

We will visit our


grandparents
tomorrow (Future
action)

PERFECT

Use

Example

Past

To indicate a past action

or condition that took


place before another past
action

I had left the school


before it rained hard
(Past action)

Present

To indicate a past action

or condition perfected or
completed before the time
of speaking

She has just arrived 20


minutes ago (Past
action completed
before the time of
speaking)

Future

To indicate a future action


or condition taking place
before another future
action or condition

The students will have


paid their last
installment dues
before they will take
the final exam (Future
action before another
one)

Progressive/
Continuous
Past

To indicate a past action or


condition taking place
simultaneously with another
past action or condition

Were you listening


as I was taking
( past action)

Present

To indicate a present action or


condition taking place
simultaneously with another
present action or condition.

I am listening as
you are talking
(Present action)

Future

To indicate a future action or


condition

It will be raining
tomorrow (Future
Condition)

Perfect Progressive/
Perfect Continuous

Past

To indicate a past action or


condition begun in the past
and occurring for a period of
time in the past

Che had been reviewing


her lessons when her
teacher arrived (Past
action)

Present

To indicate a present action or


condition begun in the past
and occurring until an
indefinite future time

Mother has been


preparing the dishes for
the party since this
morning (Present action)

Future

To indicate a future action or


condition begun in the future
and occurring for a period of
time in the future

Father will have been


working in the middle
east before I will finish
my graduate studies
(Future Action)

Emphatic
Past

Present

Future

To emphasize a past
action or condition

Abby did abort her baby


(Past action)

To emphasize a
present action or
condition

The school children do


behave well during class
hours (Present Action)

To emphasize a
future action or
condition

The students will do


review for the final
examinations next week
( future action)

IRREGULAR VERBS
Base

Past

Past Participle

Understand

understood

Understood

Present
Participle
understanding

undertake

undertook

undertaken

Undertaking

Undo
unmake
unwind
uphold
wake
waylay
wear
wed
wet
wind
Withhold

Undid
unmade
unwound
upheld
woke
waylaid
wore
wed
wet
wound
Withheld

undone
unmade
unwound
upheld
woke
waylaid
worn
wed
wet
wound
withheld

undoing
Unmaking
Unwinding
Upholding
Waking
Waylaying
Wearing
wedding
Wetting
winding
withholding

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT RULES


RULES
General Rule for Subject
Nouns
Subject and Verb agree in
number
Singular N -> Singular V (Sform)
Plural N -> Plural V ( Base
form)

EXAMPLES
A voter elects from the list of
candidates.
An Atom Splits

General Rule for Subject


Pronouns
Be-forms
I ( am, was)
You ( are, were)
He/She ( is, was)

I am a Filipino
We are Filipino
You are Filipino
We are Filipino

FORM OF IRREGULAR VERBS


Base

Past

Past Participle

Present
Participle

Group A
put

put

put

putting

set

set

set

setting

cast

cast

cast

casting

cut

cut

cut

cutting

let

let

let

letting

Group B
bring

brought

brought

bringing

teach

taught

taught

teaching

think

thought

thought

thinking

catch

caught

caught

catching

seek

sought

sought

seeking

Group c
freeze
steal
swear
get
hide
group d
fall
give
drive
take
rise
group e
swim
sing
ring
drink
sink
group f
run
come
become

froze
stole
swore
got
hid

frozen
stolen
sworn
gotten
hidden

fell
gave
drove
took
rose

fallen
given
driven
taken
risen

swam
sang
rang
drank
sank

falling
giving
driving
taking
rising

swum
sung
rung
drunk
sunk/sunken

ran
came
became

freezing
stealing
swearing
getting
hiding

swimming
singing
ringing
drinking
sinking

run
come
become

running
coming
becoming

BASE

IRREGULAR VERBS
PAST

PAST PARTICIPLE

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

arise
be
bear
become
beget
behold
bind
bleed
blow
bring
broadcast

arose
was/were
bore
became
begot
beheld
bound
bled
blew
brought
broadcast

arisen
been
born/borne
become
begotten
beheld
bound
bled
blown
brought
broadcast

arising
being
bearing
becoming
begetting
beholding
binding
bleeding
blowing
bringing
broadcasting

buy
cast
catch
come
cut
creep
dive
draw
drink

bought
cast
caught
came
cut
crept
dove
drew
drank

bought
cast caught
come
cut
crept
dove
drawn
drunk
driven fallen

buying
casting
catching
coming
cutting
creeping
diving
drawing
drinking

drive
fall

drove
fell

fed
felt

driving
falling

feed
feel
fight
find
flee

fed
felt
fought
found
tied

fought
found
fled
flown
forgotten

feeding
feeling
fighting
finding
fleeing

fly
forget
fortell
forgive

flew
forgot
foretold
forgave

foretold
forgiven
frozen
got/ngotten

flying
forgetting
foretelling
forgiving

freeze
get
drive
understand

froze
got
gave
understood

given
understood
undertaken
understood

freezing
getting
giving
understanding

undertake

undertook

undertaken

undertaking

undo
unmake
unwind
uphold
wake
waylay
wear
wed
wet

undid
unmade
unwound
upheld
woke
waylaid
wore
wed
wet

undone
unmade
unwound
upheld
woke
waylaid
worn
wed
wet

undoing
unmaking
unwinding
upholding
walking
wayiaying
wearing
wedding
wetting

base
go
grind
grow
have
hide
hit
hurt
hold
keep
lay
lead
lend
let
lie
make
meet
mistake
outshine
override
overtake
pay
put
recast
remake

past
went
ground
grew
had
hid
hit
hurt
held
kept
laid
led
lent
let
lay
made
met
mistook
outshone
overrode
overtook
paid
put
recast
remade

past participle
gone
ground
grown
had
hidden
hit
hurt
held
kept
laid
led
lent
let
lain
made
met
mistaken
outshone
overriden
overtaken
paid
put
recast
remade

present participle
going
grinding
growing
having
hiding
hitting
hurting
holding
keeping
laying
leading
lending
letting
lying
making
meeting
mistaking
outshining
overriding
overtaking
paying
putting
recasting
remaking

repay
resell
retell
rend
rid
ride
ring
rise
run
say
seek
sell
send
set
shine
shoot
show
shut
sing
sink

repaid
resold
retold
rent
rid
rode
rang
rose
ran
said
sought
sold
sent
set
shone
shot
showed
shut
sang
sank

repaid
resold
retold
rent
ridden
ridden
rung
risen
run
said
sought
sold
sent
set
shone
shot
shown
shut
sung
sunk/sunken

repaying
reselling
retelling
rending
ridding
riding
ringing
rising
running
saying
seeking
selling
sending
setting
shining
shooting
showing
shutting
singing
sinking

sit
split
stand
steal
stick
spring
strike
string

sat
split
stood
stole
stuck
sprung
struck
strung

sat
split
stood
stolen
stuck
stunk
sprung
struck/striken

sitting
slitting
speaking
speeding
splitting
standing
stealing
stringing

swear
sweep
swim

swore
swept
swam

sworn
swept
swum

swearing
sweeping
swimming

CHAPTER
4
ADJECTIVES

A side from nouns and verbs, adjectives are major words. Opposed to

nouns and pronouns which are naming words, adjectives are modifying
words similar to adverbs. However, unlike adverbs , they modify nouns and
pronouns. Adjectives differ from other parts of speech because of the
following characteristics:

1. They have positive, comparative, and superlative forms;


2. They Function as noun modifiers (attributive and predicative adjectives)
and pronoun modifiers (predicative adjectives);

3. They have such ending (suffixes) as ial, al, ian, an, ant, ent, ary, ery, ory,
ic, ical, ible, able, ive, some, ful, less, ish, id, oid, ly, like, etc. (Refer to
Derivational Suffixes in Appendix A);

4. They are positioned either before nouns and pronouns (premodifiers) and after nouns and pronouns (post-modifiers);
5. They are sometimes found in a series as shown in the table below; and
6. They are combined with other adjectives, nouns and verbs to form
solid compounds (blackboard, light weight, nearsighted) hyphenated
compounds (blue-blooded, light-handed, green-minded), and spaced
compounds (pink panther, fine dining, white lie).

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
KIND

DEFINITION

EXAMPLES

Descriptive
Adjective

An adjective that describes a noun


or a pronoun

large, attractive,
rectangular, fuchsia, new,
Mexican ( scarves)

Definite Article

An article that denotes definiteness


of the noun modified

the story, the character,


the editor, the author

Indefinite
Article

An article that does not denote


definiteness of the noun modified

a story, a character, an
editor, an author

Ordinal
Numerical
Adjective

An adjective that denotes the order


of the noun modified

fifth element, first


sacrament, twelfth night,
eight placer

Cardinal
Numerical
Adjective

An adjective that denotes the


quantity of the noun modified

five players, seven


sacraments, twelve
nights, eight placers

Demonstrative
Adjective

A demonstrative pronoun that used


to modify a noun

this goose, these geese,


that moose, those moose

Indefinite
Adjective

An indefinite pronoun that


used to modify a noun

any mouse, all


mice, each foot,
both feet

Possessive
Adjective

A possessive pronoun that is


used to modify a noun

my uniform, our
uniforms, her dress,
their dresses

Interrogative
Adjective

An interrogative pronoun that


is used to modify a noun

which bookshelf,
whose books, what
occupation

Common
Nominal
Adjective

A common noun that is used to student handbook,


modify a noun
laboratory manual,
science journal

Proper Nominal
Adjective

A proper noun that is used to


modify a noun

CCP handbook,
Chemistry manual,
PICPA journal, CUSA
activity

Attributive
Adjective

An adjective that precedes the noun or


pronoun it modifies

square table, elliptical


road, erogenous zones,
titillating films,
classroom activity

Predicative
Adjective

An adjective that follows a linking verb and


serves as a subjective complement

The table is square.


This road id elliptical.

Regular
Adjective

An adjective that forms its comparative and


superlative forms by adding - er/more and
est/most the base form, respectively

quick- quicker -quickest.


full-fuller-fullest.
stable-more stable-most
stable.

Irregular
Adjective

An adjective that forms its comparative and


superlative forms other than by adding
er/more and -est/most to the base form,
respectively

well/good-better-best.
Far-farther-further-farthestfurthest.
ill/bad-worse-worst.

Positive
Adjective

An adjective that is used to


described only one person,
place, thing, event, or idea

Fe is a fast thinker.

Comparativ
e Adjective

An adjective that is used in


comparing two persons, places,
things, events, or ideas

Compared to Fe, Aida


is a faster thinker.

Superlative
Adjective

An adjective that is used in


comparing three or more persons,
places, things, events, or ideas

Among the three


friends, Lorna is the
fastest thinker.

Simple
Adjective

An adjective that is composed of


only one word

Hard, friendly, worthy,


bold, well, good.

Compound
Adjective

An adjective that is composed of


two or more words

Hard-working,
environment friendly,
noteworthy,
boldfaced, well-known,
good-looking.

FORMS OF IRREGULAR
ADJECTIVES
POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

bad/ill

worse

worst

far(distance)

farther

farthest

far(time)

further

furthest

good

better

best

little

less

least

much

more

most

well

better

best

CHAPTER
5

ADVERBS

Adverbs

-are among the major words, Like adjectives, adverbs are


modifying words. However, they modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs ,and they are less numerous. They differ from
adjectives and other parts of speech because of the following
characteristics:
1.They possess positive, comparative, andsuperlativeforms
2.They have such endings(suffixes)as ly, ally, wise, and
ward(Refer to Derivational suffixes inAppendix A)

3.They are usually positioned before or after verbs, additonally,


being shiftable elements, they are placed initially(as
introductory words),medially ,or finally in sentences
4.They are sometimes found in a series after verbs(in final
position).
5.They are combined with other words to form solid compounds
(fastbreak, herewith, thereto), hypenated compounds(firstborn, well-bred, ill-gotten),andspaced compounds(every now and
then, forever and ever).

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
KIND

DEFINITION

EXAMPLES

Adverb
of
Time

An adverb that denotes the time of


occurence of the action or
condition.

Adverb
of
Place

An adverb that denotes the place of Come here.


occurence of the action or
See you there.
condition.
She lives near.

Adverb
of
Manner

An adverb that denotes the manner Read aloud.


of the action or conditon.
I can sleep soundly.
You can do fast.

Adverb
of

An adverb that denotes the


frequency of occurrence of the
action or condition.

I always brush may teeth.


It is usually flooded.
Pray the rosary daily.

An adverb that denotes the degree


or intensity of the verb,adjective,or
adverb modified.

This coffee is so hot.


You are quite early.
It is too late.

Adverb
of
Degree/Intensity

They met yesterday.


See you later.
Wellhave a meeting next
week.

Adverb of Affirmation

An adverb that denotes


affirmation of the
assertion.

Adverb of
Doubt/Uncertainty

An adverb that denotes doubt Probably,this is the best beer.


or uncertainty of the
Perhaps,you will pass.
assertion.
Maybe,next year i will
graduate.

Adverb of Negation

An adverb that denotes


negation of the assertion.

No, I wont attend the party.


She will not go here.
I will never say goodbye.

Interrogative Adverb

An adverb that introduces an


interrogative sentences.

Where are you going?


When will see you again?

Positive Adverb

An adverb that is used to


describe only one aciton or
condition.

Lydia run fast.


I write legibly.

Comparative Adverb

An adverb that is used in


comparing two action or
condition.

Lydia runs faster than Elma.


My brother writes more
legibly than I do.

Hell surely miss us.


Indeed, this book is errorfree.
Yes, you can.

Superlative
Adverb

An adverb that is used to


comparing three or more
actions or conditions.

Lydia runs fastest among


Asian sprinters.
She writes most legibly
among them.

Regular Adverb

An adverb that forms its


comparative and superlative
forms by adding er/more and
est/most to the base form,
respectively.

Soon-sooner-soonest
Early-earlier-earliest
Lately-more lately-most
lately

Irregular Adverb

An adverb that forms its


comparative and superlative
forms either by adding
er/more and est/most to the
base,respectively

Well-better-best
Badly-worse-worst
Much-more-most

Simple Adverb

An adverb that is composed


only one word.

Swiftly, smartly, terribly,


honestly

Compound
Adverb

An adverb that is composed of Sideward, clockwise


two or more words.

FORMS OF IRREGULAR ADVERBS


POSITIVE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

badly

worse

worst

Far(distance)

farther

farthest

Far(time)

further

furthest

ill

worse

worst

little

less

least

much

more

most

well

better

Best

DEGREE OF COMPARISON OF IRREGULAR ADVERBS


SUPERLATIVE
(3+items)

COMPARATIVE
(2Items)

POSITIVE
(1Item)

COMPARATIVE
(2Items)

SUPERLATIVE
(3+items)

Least near

Less near

near

nearer

Nearest

Least fast

Less fast

fast

faster

Fastest

Least surely

Less surely

surely

More surely

Most surely

Least coldly

Less coldly

coldly

More coldly

Most coldly

Least firmly

Less firmly

firmly

More firmly

Most firmly

Least mildly

Less mildly

mildly

More mildly

Most mildly

Least often

Less often

often

More often

Most often

Least rarely

Less rarely

rarely

More rarely

Most rarely

Least usually

Less usually

usually

More usually

Most usually

Least forward

Less forward

forward

More forward

Most forward

Least sincerely

Less sincerely

sincerely

More sincerely

Most sincerely

Least selfishly

Less selfishly

sincerely

More selfishly

Most selfishly

Least angrily

Less angrily

Angrily

More angrily

Most angrily

Least rigidly

Less rigidly

Rigidly

More rigidly

Most rigidly

Least sanely

Less sanely

sanely

More sanely

Most sanely

CHAPTER
6
CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions
Are classified among the minor word sand
primarily,
they serve to connect words, phrases,
clauses and sentences.

Characteristics of Conjunctions
1.They are found in coordination structures between
words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
.
2.They are used to introduced
subordinate or dependent clauses.

3.They exist singly that is, they are not


found in combination with the other words
to form compounds.

Coordination of Phrases

Examples:
both the beauties and the beast (coordinator links noun
phrases) occupies space and has mass (coordinator links verb
phrases) either to pursue graduate studies here or to work
abroad (coordinator links infinitive phrases) of the people ,by the
people and for the people (coordinator links prepositional
phrases) neither listening to radio programs nor watching TV
shows (coordinator links gerundial/participial phrases) quite
short but somewhat boring (coordinator links adjective phrases)

Coordination of Clauses
Examples:
Hero is brave, moreover he is smart.( coordinator
links independent clauses) who will arrive first and
who will finish first ( coordinator links dependent
clauses)
Coordination of Sentences
They learned the lesson well.However,they flunked.
(coordinator links sentence) Mario has just left for
the States.Moreover,he has not failed to
communicate with us.(coordinator links sentences)

Classifications of Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
-A conjunctions that joins two or more coordinate words,
phrases, clauses or sentences.
Ex. singing or dancing
Correlative Conjunctions
-A pair of conjunctions that join two coordinate words,
phrases or clauses.
Ex. neither singing or dancing
Conjunctive Adverb/Adverbial Conjunction
-A conjunction serves as an adverb
Ex. Lea is a good leader moreover she is a good follower.
.

Subordinating Conjunctions
-A conjunctions that is used to
introduced a subordinate or
dependent clause.
Ex. The street are flooded because
it rained earlier

CLASSIFICATION OF PIVOTAL OR TRANSITIONAL WORDS

Additive Words
-denote addition of qb idea
Ex. also,and,beside,furthermore,in
addition,additionally,moreover,too
Equivalent Words
-show equivalence in idea or quality.
Ex. as well as,at the same time,equally
important,likewise,similarly.
Amplifying Words
-indicate the existence of an example or ab illustration.
Alternative Words
-show the existence of choices or alternatives.
Ex. either/or,neither/nor,other than,otherwise .

Repetitive Words
-indicate repetition of an idea.
Ex. again, to repeat, in other words, that is Contrastive and Change
Words
-denote contrast or opposite ideas.
Ex. but, conversely, despite, even though, however, in spite of, the
contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, regardless, though, not
withstanding, rather than, still, although, whereas, while, yet

Qualifying Words
-words that qualify ideas.
Ex. although, if, provided that, unless, whatever. Concession Words
-denote concession.
Ex. accepting the data, even though, granted that, of course.
Emphasizing Words
-Words that give emphasis.
Ex. above all, indeed, more important, more importantly

Sequential Words
-words that show order
Ex.
finally,first,second,third,last,next,then,eventually,firstly,lastly,secondly
Temporal Words
-words that indicate time.
Ex. Afterwards ,at the same
time,before,formerly,later,previously,then,subsequently,ultimately,unti
l,while,finally,in the meantime, meanwhile

Summative/Summarizing Words
-words that summarize.
Ex. briefly, in these reason, in conclusion, to conclude, to summarize,
to sum up, to end, as a summary, in short.
Causative Words
-Words that denotes causes.
Ex. because of, because, due to , owing to, out of, inasmuch as,
since ,for this reason

Consequential Words
-Words that denote effects or
consequences. Ex. therefore,
hence, thus, as a result, as a
consequently, so, then ,accordingly.

CHAPTER
7
PREPOSITION

Preposition
A word governing, and usually
preceding, a noun or pronoun and
expressing a relation to another
word or element in the clause.

PREPOSITION AND VERB IDIOMS


Idiom

Meaning

Bring down

To cause to fall

Bring up

To rear

Give in
Give out

To yield

To distribute

Give up

To quit/to surrender

Hold out

To offer

Hold up

To delay; to impede

Look at
Look background
Look down upon
Look for
Look forward
Look forward to
Look into
Look on
Look out
Look over

To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To
To

observe
retrospect, To reminisnce
little; to debase
find; to search
predict; to foresee
antipate; to expect
investigate
watch; to view
watch over
browse

Look up to

To pay respect

Set aside
Set up
Stand by
Stand for
Stand off
Stand up to
Take way
Take down

To keep

Take for
Take in
Take off
Take on
Take out
Take over

Take up

To establish
To be present
To present
To repel; to stall
To defend
To deduct; to remove
To write from dictation

To mistake for
To absorb
To remove
To assume
To eliminate, to withdraw/withhold
To replace

To discuss

Classification of Prepositions
1. Temporal Preposition
- a preposition that denotes time
e.g. Will school open in September ?
Classes start at 7:45 am
2. Spatial Preposition
- it denotes the location, position or direction
e.g. She stays in an apartment
Get out of your shell
3. Relational Preposition
- denote the relationship between the object of
the preposition and another word in the sentence
e.g. He is a Doctor by profession
The two countries are at war

4. Instrumental Preposition
- denotes the instrument
e.g. Slice it with the bread knife
The child was save by her sister
5. Causal/Causative Preposition
- Shows the cause effect relationship
e.g. We were born because of love
Many were stranded due to storm
6. Comparative Preposition
- denotes similarity
e.g. Treat me like a rose
You look like your mother

7. Contrastive Preposition
- denote dissimilarity
e.g. Unlike me, you came from a well-to-do family
They love basketball unlike football
8. Replacive Preposition
- denotes substitution
e.g. The nurse in place of the physician took the
patient vital statistic
9. Possessive Preposition
- denotes possession
e.g. One leg of the table is broken
The arms of the starfish are long

10. Purposive Preposition


- denotes purpose
e.g. We will go to boracay for an outing
The actress did it for art sake

11. Quantitative Preposition


- denotes quantity
e.g. They slept here for a day
The class were group by twos
12. Simple Preposition
- composed of only one word
e.g. in, out, on, for, up
13. Compound Preposition
- composed of two or more words
e.g. out of, in front of, on top of, in spite of, up to,
because of, owing to, due to

CHAPTER
8
INTERJECTIONS

Interjection

is a word used to express a


particularemotion
or sentiment on the part of the
speaker (although most interjections
have cleardefinition).Filled
pausessuch asuh,er,umare also
considered interjections. Interjections
are often placed at the beginning of a
sentence.

Classification of Interjection
1.Strong Interjection
An interjection that expresses a strong
emotion or sudden felling
e.g. Ouch! It hurt.
Fire! Our houses are burning.
2.Mild Interjection
An interjection that expresses a mild
emotion
e.g. Oh, you look awful.
Hey, its me.

Interjection and their Function


1.Ah
-Expression of delight, relief, regret, or contempt
2.Aha
-Expression of surprise, triumph, or decision
3.Alas
-Expression of unhappiness, pity, or concern
4.Ay
-Expression of sorrow or regret

5.Aye/ay
-Expression of affirmation

6.Eh
-Expression used to confirm or require
7.Ha
- Expression of surprise, joy, and sometimes
hesitation
8.Heigh/ho
-Expression of boredom, weariness; cry of
encouragement
9.Hello
-Expression of greeting or surprise
10.Hey/heigh
-Expression of interrogation, surprise; used to call
attention

11.Hi
-Expression of greeting
12.Ho
-Expression used to attract attention to something
specified
13.Holla/hollo/hallo/halloo
-Expression of encouragement or jubilation
14.Hurrah/hurray
-Expression of joy, approbation, or encouragement
15.Lo
- Expression of wonder or surprise

16.Nay/nope
-Expression of negation
17.Oh
-Expression of various emotions, including
astonishment, pain
18.Ouch
-Expression of sudden pain or displeasure
19.Rah
-Expression of cheer (short for hurrah)
20.Ugh
-Expression of disgust or horror

21.Uh
- Expression similar
to uh
22.Yuck
Expression of disgust
or disappointment

CHAPTER
9
VERBALS

VERBALS

Serve as nouns, adjectives, and


adverbs.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBALS
PARTICIPLE
-A verbal that has either the ing form or the
ed/d/t/en/n form and serves only as an
adjective.
EXAMPLES:
Reading, watching, playing, swimming, read,
watched, played, swum, run

Present Participle
-A participle that ends in ing
EXAMPLES:
The students swimming are UAAP athletes.
There are many reading-materials in the library.

PAST PARTICIPLE
-A participle that ends in ed/d/t/en/n or has an
irregular past participle form
EXAMPLES:
A corporation partly run by public officials is quasigovernmental.
The material read by students are interesting.

INFINITIVE

-A verbal that has the form to +V and serves as a


noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
EXAMPLES:
Lea loves to read. (noun serving as direct object)
Her desire to play for the national team was foiled.
(adjective modifying the noun desire)
The spectators are eager to watch the spectacular
Aliwan Festival. (adverb modifying the adjective
eager)

GERUND
A verbal that has the ing form and serves only as a
noun(subject, subjective complement, direct object, indirect
object, object of the preposition, object of the verbal, objective
complement, and appositive)
EXAMPLES:
Walking is good for the heart. (subject)
Her hobby is dancing. (subjective complement)
Quit smoking. (direct object)
She recovered by not eating fat.(object of the preposition)
I believe in quitting smoking.(object of the verbal)
Hero made his hobby skating. (objective complement)
Smokey gave uo his vice, smoking. (appositive)

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