Basic Laws

Chapter 2

Chap. 2 Basic Laws

Introduction
Ohms law
Nodes, branches, and loops
Kirchhoffs laws
Series and Parallel connections
Wye-Delta Transformations

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Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

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Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the voltage v across a
resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.
Ohms law provides an algebraic relationship
between voltage and current for a resistor,
v = voltage in volts (V),
v iR i = current in amperes (A)
R = resistance in ohms ()

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i
+
v

Resistor with resistance R

Ohms law v=iR

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Resistors
All materials in general have a characteristic
behavior to resist the flow of charge through
them.
This physical property is called the resistance
measured in
A resistor with its resistance is given by
= resistivity in ohm-meters (.m)
= length of material (m),
R
A A = cross-sectional area (m2)
R = resistance in ohms ()
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(a) Resistor,
(b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

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Resistivity
Conductors (resistivity in ohm-meters):
Copper (1.4710-8 ohm-meters)
Aluminium (1.7210-8 ohm-meters)

Semiconductors:
Germanium (0.60 ohm-meters)
Silicon (23000 ohm-meters)

Insulators:
Sulfur (1015 ohm-meters)
Glass (1010-1014 ohm-meters)
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 The resistance R (measured in ohms) of an

element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current.
We use ideal (linear) resistors in circuit
analysis that we assume is constant in value
and that do not vary over time (time invariant).

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Linear and Nonlinear Resistors

v

Linear Resistor

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Nonlinear Resistor

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Further Topics Related to Ohms

Law
A short circuit is a circuit element with
resistance approaching zero (R0),
v = iR= 0.
An open circuit is a circuit element with
resistance approaching infinity (R),
v
i lim 0
R R

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v
(a) Short circuit (R = 0),
(b) Open circuit (R = )
i
v

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Fixed resistors:
(a) wirewound type,
(b) carbon film type.

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Circuit symbol for:

(a) a variable resistor in general,
(b) a potentiometer.

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Variable resistors:
(a) composition type,
(b) slider pot.

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Resistors in a thick-film circuit.

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 Conductance, measured in siemens (S), is the

ability of an element to conduct electric
current,
v = voltage in volts (V)
1 i
G
i = current in amperes (A)
R v R
= resistance in ohms ()

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Power at The Terminals of a

Resistor
Remember that power can be expressed as
p = power in watts (W)
p vi v = voltage in volts (V)
i = current in amperes (A)

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 Using Ohms law, power can also be expressed in

terms of the current and the resistance as

p vi (iR )i i R

The power in terms of voltage becomes

v2
p
R

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 Regardless of voltage polarity and current direction,

power at the terminals of a resistor is positive (p>0),
i.e. a positive resistor always absorbs power from the
circuit.
The consumed energy in resistor will be dissipated in
terms of heat to the environment. A heater is a typical
resistor.
If the power supplied to the resistor is so large that
the energy consumed in the resistor cannot reach the
thermal equilibrium, the resistor will be broken;
hence all resistor has a power limit.
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Example 2.2
v
30
i
6 mA
3
R 5 10
1
1
G
0.2 mS
3
R 5 10
p vi 30(6 10 3 ) 180 mW
or
p i 2 R (6 10 3 ) 2 103 180 mW
or
p v 2G (30) 2 0.2 10 3 180 mW
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Nodes, Branches and Loops

A network is an interconnection of elements
A circuit is a network providing one or more
closed paths.
A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
A node is the point of connection between two
or more branches.
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
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Nodes, branches and loops.

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The three-node circuit is redrawn.

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 A loop is said to be independent if it at least

contains a branch which is not in any other
independent loops.
A network with b branches, n nodes and l
independent loops satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:
b l n 1

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Example 2.4

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Practice Problem 2.4

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Practice Problem 2.4

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Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

(1824-1887)

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Kirchhoffs Current Law

Kirchhoffs current law (KCL): The
algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in
a circuit equals zero.
N

in 0
n 1

N = number of branches connected to the node

in = nth current entering (or leaving) the node

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 Remember that a node is a point where two or

more circuit elements meet.
To use Kirchhoffs current law, an algebraic
sign corresponding to a reference direction
must be assigned to every current at the node,
e.g. a positive sign for currents leaving a node
requires a negative sign for currents entering a
node.

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 Consider previous figure

i1 (i2 ) i3 i4 (i5 ) 0
i1 i3 i4 i2 i5

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Current sources in parallel:

original circuit,
equivalent circuit.

I T I 2 I1 I 3
or
I T I1 I 2 I 3

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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL): The
algebraic sum of all the voltages around any
closed path in a circuit equals zero.
M

vm 0

m 1

N = number of voltages in the loop

vm = mth voltage

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 A closed path or loop is a path that starts at an

arbitrary selected node, and that traces a
closed path in a circuit through selected basic
circuit elements and return to the original node
without passing through any intermediate node
more than once.

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 To use Kirchhoffs voltage law, an algebraic

sign corresponding to a reference polarity must
be assigned to every voltage in the path,
e.g. a positive sign for a voltage rise requires a
negative sign for a voltage drop.

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A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

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 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 0
v2 v3 v5 v1 v4
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises.

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 Vab V1 V2 V3 0
Vab V1 V2 V3

Voltage sources in series:

(a) original circuit,
(b) equivalent circuit.
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 Combining Ohms law, KCL, and KVL, we

can analyze any resistor circuits, that is, a
circuit with resistors and active sources.

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Example 2.5

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Example 2.5
v1 2i, v2 3i
20 v1 v2 0
20 2i 3i 0 or 5i 20 i 4 A
v1 8 V, v2 12 V.

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Example 2.6
12 4i 2v0 4 6i 0
v0 6i
16 10i 12i 0 i 8 A
v0 48 V .

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Example 2.7
3 0.5i0 i0

i0 6 A

v0 4i0 24 V

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Example 2.8

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Example 2.8
v1 8i1 , v2 3i2 , v3 6i3
Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig 2.27(b),
i1 i2 i3 0
30 v1 v2 0
30 8i1 3i2 0
(30 3i2 )
i1
8

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Example 2.8
Applying KVL to loop 2,
v2 v3 0 v3 v2
i2
6i3 3i2 i3
2
30 3i2
i2
i2 0
8
2
i1 3 A, i3 1 A, v1 24 V, v2 6 V, v3 6V.
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Resistors in Series
Series-connected circuit elements carry the
same current. Prove by applying KCL to each
node in the circuit.
Focus on reducing complex circuits into
simpler, equivalent circuits.

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A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.

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The Voltage-Divider Circuit

The series connection can realize the voltagedivider circuits which develop more than one
voltage level from a single voltage supply.
Voltage-divider circuits consist of two
resistors in series with a voltage source.
R1
R2
v1
v, v2
v
R1 R2
R1 R2

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Equivalent circuit of the circuit.

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v1 iR1 , v2 iR2
v v1 v2 0
v v1 v2 i ( R1 R2 )
v
i
R1 R2
v iReq
Req R1 R2
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 Equivalent resistance Req is the sum of all k

resistors in series. Note Req > Ri
N

Req R1 R2 RN Rn
n 1

R1
R2
v1
v , v2
v
R1 R2
R1 R2
Rn
vn
v
R1 R2 RN
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Resistors in Parallel
Parallel-connected circuit elements have the
same voltage across their terminals. Prove by
applying KCL and Ohms law to the circuit.
Focus on reducing complex circuits into
simpler, equivalent circuits.

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Two resistors in parallel.

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v i1 R1 i2 R2
v
v
i1 , i2
R1
R2
i i1 i2
1 1
v
v
v
i
v

R1 R2
R1 R2 Req

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The Current-Divider Circuit

The parallel connection can realize the
current-divider circuits which divide a single
current source into two currents.
Current -divider circuits consist of two
resistors in parallel across a current source.

R2
R1
i1
is , i2
is
R1 R2
R1 R2
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1
1 1

Req R1 R2
1 R1 R2

Req
R1 R2
R1 R2
Req
R1 R2

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 The inverse of the equivalent resistance 1/Req is

the sum of inverses of all k resistors in parallel.
Note Req < Ri
1
1 1
1

Req R1 R2
RN
If R1 R2 RN R
R
Req
N
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Geq G1 G2 G3 GN
where Geq = 1/Req, G1 = 1/R1, G2 = 1/R2, G3 =
1/R3, GN = 1/RN.

The equivalent conductance of resistors

connected in parallel is the sum of each
individual conductance.
1
1
1
1
1

Req

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R1

R2

R3

RN

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Equivalent circuit.

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iR1 R2
v iReq
R1 R2

R2i
i1
,
R1 R2

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R1i
i2
R1 R2

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(a) A shorted circuit,

(b) an open circuit.

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G1
i1
i
G1 G2
G2
i2
i
G1 G2
Gn
in
i
G1 G2 GN

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Example 2.34

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Example 2.34
63
6 3
2
63
1 5 6
In Fig. 2.35(a),
2 2 4,
46
4 6
2.4
46
In Fig. 2.35(b),
Req 4 2.4 8 14.4.
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Example 2.10

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Example 2.10
3 6
3 6
2
3 6
12 4
12 4
3
12 4
1 5 6.
23
2 3
1.2
23
Rab 10 1.2 11.2
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Example 2.11
8 S 12 S 20 S
20 5
4S
20 5
Geq 6 4 10 S

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Example 2.11
1 1 1 1 1
Req

6 5 8 12 6
1 1

1
6
4

1 1 10

6 4
1
Geq
10 S.
Req
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1 1 1 1

5 20 6 4

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Example 2.12
63
6 3
2
63
12
i
2A
42
2
v0
(12 V ) 4 V
24
4
v0 3i0 4 i0 A
3
6
2
4
i0
i (2 A) A
63 3
3
4

p0 v0i0 4 5.333 W.
3

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Example 2.13
(a) 6 12 18
18000
i1
(30 mA) 20 mA
9000 18000
9000
i2
(30mA) 10 mA
9000 18000
v0 9000i1 18000i2 180 V.

(b) p0 v0i0 180(30) mW 5.4 W.

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Example 2.13
(c) By 12 - k resistor
3 2

p iv i2 (i2 R ) i R (10 10 ) (12000) 1.2 W

2
2

By 6 - k resistor
3 2

p i R (10 10 ) (6000) 0.6 W

2
2

By 9 - k resistor
2
0

v
(180)
p
3.6 W or
R 9000
p v0i1 180(20) mW 3.6 W
The power supplied 5.4 W 1.2 W 1.6 W 3.6 W.
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The bridge network.

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Delta ()-to-Wye (Y) Equivalent

Circuits (I)
Some circuits of interconnected resistors
cannot be reduced to an equivalent resistance
using the simple series of parallel equivalent
circuits introduced earlier.
Delta () and pi () circuits are electrically
equivalent.
Wye (Y) and tee (T) circuits are electrically
equivalent.

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Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

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Two forms of the same network:

(a) , (b) .

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Delta ()-to-Wye (Y) Equivalent

Circuits (II)
For each pair of terminals in the - and Yconnected circuits, the equivalent resistance
can be calculated using series and parallel
simplifications:
R12 (Y) R1 R3 , R12 ( ) Rb ( Ra Rc )
Setting R12 (Y) R12 ( )
Rb ( Ra Rc )
R12 R1 R3
Ra Rb Rc

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Rb ( Ra Rc )
R12 R1 R3
Ra Rb Rc
Rc ( Rb Ra )
R13 R1 R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra ( Rb Rc )
R34 R2 R3
Ra Rb Rc

Rc ( Rb Ra )
R1 R2
Ra R b Rc
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Delta ()-to-wye (Y) equivalent

circuits (III)
Y-connected resistors in terms of -connected
resistors required for the -to-Y equivalent
circuit:
Rb Rc
R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rc Ra
R2
Ra Rb Rc
Ra Rb
R3
Ra Rb Rc
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 Each resistor in the Y network is the product of

the resistors in the two adjacent branches,
divided by the sum of the three resistors.

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Superposition of Y and networks as an aid in transforming one to

the other.

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 -connected resistors in terms of Y-connected

resistors required for the Y-to- equivalent
circuit:
Ra Rb Rc ( Ra Rb Rc )
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
( Ra Rb Rc ) 2
Ra Rb Rc

Ra Rb Rc
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc

R1
Ra Rb Rc
Rb Rc
Ra
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R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Ra
R1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rb
R2
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
Rc
R3
Each resistor in the network is the sum of all
possible products of Y resistors taken two at a
time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
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R1 R2 R3 RY , Ra Rb Rc R

R
RY
3

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or

R 3RY

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Example 2.14

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Example 2.14
Rb Rc
10 25
250
R1

5
Ra Rb Rc 15 10 25 50
Rc Ra
25 15
R2

7.5
Ra Rb Rc
50
Ra Rb
15 10
R3

3
Ra Rb Rc
50

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Example 2.15

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Example 2.15
R1 10 , R2 25 , R3 5
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 10 20 20 5 5 10
Ra

R1
10
350

35
10

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Example 2.15
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 350
Rb

17.5
R2
20
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1 350
Rc

70
R3
5

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Example 2.15

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Example 2.15
With the Y converted to , combining the
three pairs of resistors in parallel,
70 30
70 30
21
70 30
12.5 17.5
12.5 17.5
7.292
12.5 17.5
15 35
15 35
10.5
15 35
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Example 2.15
17.792 21
Rab (7.292 10.5) 21
9.632
17.792 21
Then
vs
120
i

12.458 A.
Rab 9.632

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Symmetry Circuits
Find the equivalent resistance of bridge circuit:

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 Method 1: using delta-y conversion

3
Req
2

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 Method 2: Short a-b because of zero voltage

difference between a-b due to symmetry

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 Method 3: Open a-b because of zero current through

a-b due to symmetry

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Homework 2: Due Feb 15, 2010

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Problem 2.4
Problem 2.13
Problem 2.25
Problem 2.38
Problem 2.47
Problem 2.57
Problem 2.83

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