Endocrine System

Glands & Hormones

Endocrine System
Utilises chemical messengers called hormones that
have regulatory effects on their target cells
Regulates:

Growth
Reproduction
Utilization of nutrients by cells
The adjustment of fluid balance and metabolic rate

Endocrine System
Works closely with the nervous system to
maintain homeostasis
Has different modes of action from the
nervous system

Differences between the Endocrine

and Nervous Systems
Nervous System

Endocrine System

Sends messages over

short distances

Hormones can have

widespread effects
throughout the body

Responses to nervous
stimulation tend to be
rapid and brief

Responses require several

hours or even longer and
effects may be long
lasting

Hormone
A chemical messenger that is produced
at one site and carried by the blood to
its site of action (target cells)

Hormones
Target tissues may be specific
eg. Testosterone causes hair to grow on the face
but not on the scalp

The entire body may be the target

eg. Thyroid hormones stimulate metabolic rate
in most cells

Hormones
Secreted by:
Endocrine glands
Neurons
Other types of cells

Endocrine Glands
Ductless hormones are secreted into
interstitial fluid and then diffuses into the
blood for transport to target cells

Mechanism of Hormone
Action
Hormones produce one or more of the following
cellular changes:

Alter plasma membrane permeability

Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate mitosis

Classification of Hormones
Lipid Derivatives
Amino-acid derivatives
Peptides or Proteins

Classification of Hormones:
Lipid Derivatives

Two categories
1. Eicosanoids
2. Steroid hormones

Classification of Hormones:
Lipid Derivatives
Eicosanoids
Derived from arachidonic acid
Small molecules with a five carbon ring at one
end
Important paracrine factors that coordinate
cellular activities and affect enzymatic
processes (blood clotting) in extracellular fluids
Some have secondary roles as hormones
Eg. Leukotrienes and Prostaglandins

Classification of Hormones:
Lipid Derivatives
Steroid Hormones
Derived from cholesterol
Secreted by sex glands, adrenal cortex and
kidneys
Eg. Progesterone, testosterone, estradiol,
cortisol, aldosterone and calcitriol

Classification of Hormones:
Amino-Acid Derivatives

Amines
Chemically the simplest hormones
Derived from tyrosine and tryptophan
Eg. Thyroid hormones, epinephrine and
norepinephrine

Classification of Hormones:
Peptides
Chains of amino acids synthesized as
prohormones
Two groups
Glycoproteins of more than 200 aa in length
Eg Thyroid stimulating hormone, leuteinizing
hormone and follicle stimulating hormone

Short polypeptide chains and small proteins

ADH, Oxytocin, Growth hormone, Prolactin,
Glucagon, Secretin, ACTH, Calcitonin and Insulin

Features of Hormones
Most endocrine glands secrete small
amounts of their hormones continuously.
Steroid hormones and peptide hormones are
transported bound to plasma proteins.

Features of Hormones
Several hormones might be involved in
regulating the activities of a single target
tissue. Hormones may have several effects:
Synergistic effects: the presence of one
enhances the effect of the other. Example: the
glucose-sparing action of growth hormone and
glucocorticoids.

Features of Hormone
Antagonistic effects: opposing effects with
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin; or insulin
and glucagon.
Permissive effect: where the first hormone is
needed for the second to produce its effect. E.g.
epinephrine does not change energy
consumption unless thyroid hormones are
present.

Features of Hormones
Integrative effects: coordinates activities of
diverse physiological systems. Eg. Parathyroid
hormone and Calcitriol

Features of Hormones
Hormones bind to specific receptor sites on
target cells.
Hormones indirectly affect the activity of
the cell it regulates therefore activating a
series of reaction.

Hormone Secretion
The secretion of hormones is regulated in
two ways:
Negative Feedback: regulation is most
common in hormone secretion. The
response reverses the effect of the
stimulus.
E.g. the effect of PTH on Calcium levels

Hormone Secretion
- Positive Feedback: the initial stimulus
produces a response that magnifies the
stimulus. E.g. the secretion of oxytocin
uterine contraction

Endocrine Malfunctions
Hypo-secretion: the gland decreases the
hormone output depriving target cells of
needed stimulation.
Hyper-secretion: a gland increases its
output to abnormal levels causing over
stimulation of target cells.

Endocrine Malfunctions
An appropriate amount of hormone may be
secreted but target cells may not be able to
utilize it.
Insufficient numbers of receptor proteins
may not function properly.

Endocrine Glands

The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus:
Links the endocrine systems with the
nervous systems
Receives input from other parts of the brain
Is stimulated by hormones in the blood
Produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
stored in the pituitary gland.

Oxytocin
Is released under the stimulation of high
oestrogen levels and distortion of the
uterine cervix
Stimulates the smooth muscle fibres of the
uterus
May be administered clinically (under the
name Pitocin) to initiate and speed labour

Oxytocin
For post-delivery, oxytocin stimulates
contraction of cells surrounding the milk
glands to allow milk into the ducts.

Antidiurectic Hormone/Vasopressin
Is a peptide hormone. Its functions includes:
Regulates fluid balance, indirectly helping
to control blood pressure.
Helps the body to conserve water by
increasing re-absorption
Constricts anterioles following blood loss
which ultimately decreases blood pressure

The Pituitary Gland

Another name for the pituitary gland is
hypophysis.
Has a size of approx. 0.5g (0.02oz)
Is a master gland that produces 9 hormones.
Lies within a cavity of the spheroid bone
inferior to the hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland
Consists of the:
Anterior pituitary (andenohypophysis)
Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) which
is an extension of the hypoyhalamus that
stores oxytocin and ADH.

Pituitary Gland
1.ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) Stimulates
adrenal glands to make Cortisol and aldosterone

2. ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) Causes kidneys to

reabsorb more water preventing dehydration
3. GH (Growth hormone) (Causes bone and muscle growth)
4. TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) (Stimulates
thyroid gland to make T 3 and T4)

Pituitary Gland
5.

LH (Luitenizing hormone) (Stimulates estrogen & progesterone

secretion from ovaries & testosterone secretion from testes)

6.

FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) (Egg & sperm production)

7. Oxytocin (Causes uterine contractions & milk ejection)

8. Prolactin (milk production)
9.

MSH (Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone) Causes melanin

production in skin

Growth Hormone
Also called Somatotropin.
Stimulates growth of cartilage which
promotes linear growth of the skeleton.
Stimulates general tissue growth and
increase in size of organs through protein
synthesis and other processes.

Growth Hormone
Growth hormone is regulated by growth
releasing hormone and growth hormone
inhibiting hormone

Abnormal Growth
1. Pituitary Dwarfism: individuals whose
pituitary gland did not produce sufficient
growth hormone during childhood.
Are of normal intelligence and well
proportioned.
Dwarfism may be caused by a lack of
non- responsiveness of target tissues and
malfunction of regulating hormones.

Pituitary
Dwarfism

Abnormal Growth
2. Gigantism: individuals whose anterior
pituitary secretes excessive amounts of GH
during childhood.

Gigantism

Abnormal Growth
3. Acromegaly: hyper-secretion of GH in
adulthood. Individuals are unable to grow
any taller so the hands, feet and face may
increase in diameter.
Connective tissues also thickens and body
organs may increase in size.

Acromegaly

Prolactin
Stimulates mammary gland cells in order to
produce milk.
The secretion is regulated by prolactin-inhibiting
hormone and prolactin-releasing hormone.
Prolactin is a releasing hormone that stimulates
prolactin secretion after the inhibition of PIH has
occurred for a long period of time.

Tropic Hormones
1.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) that:

Targets the thyroid gland
Triggers the release of thyroid hormones
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
stimulates the release of TSH
When thyroid hormone levels increase in
the blood, the rate of production of TSH
and TRH decreases

Tropic Hormones
2. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the release of steroid hormones
from the adrenal cortex (outer portion of the
adrenal glands)
Cortcotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)
releases ACTH

Pineal Gland
Secretes Melatonin

Melatonin
Inhibits reproductive functions
Levels decline at puberty

Protects against damage by free radicals

Protects CNS neurons from NO or H2O2 that
may be produced by active neural cells

Setting circadian rhythms

Thyroid Gland
Is a shield-like gland. It has 2 lobes 5cm in
length which is separated by a bridge of
tissue.
The gland is located in the neck, anterior to
the trachea and inferior to the larynx.

Thyroid Gland
T3 (Triiodothyronine) (Controls metabolism)
T4 (Thyroxin)
Glucose oxidation
Increasing metabolic rate
Heat production
Maintaining blood pressure
Regulating tissue growth
Developing skeletal and nervous systems
Maturation and reproductive capabilities
Calcitonin (Builds up bone to lower blood calcium)

Goiters

Goiters
Iodine deficiency
hyperplasia of thyroid to compensate for
decreased efficacy; thyroid activity declines
(Hypothyroidism)

Graves disease
autoantibodies that activate the TSH receptor;
Hyperthyroidism

Graves Disease

Graves Disease
- Symptoms

Anxiety
Breast enlargement in men
Difficulty concentrating
Double vision
Protruding eyes (exophthalmos)
Fatigue
Frequent bowel movements
Goiter
Increased sweating
Insomnia
Rapid or irregular heartbeat
Weight loss (rarely weight gain)
Restlessness
Menstrual irregularities
nervousness

Cretinism

Cretinism
A condition of severely stunted physical
and mental growth due to untreated
congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones
Hypothyroidism in youth

Myxedema
Adult Hypothyroidism
May develop due to:

An inflammation of the thyroid gland

Autoimmune or Hashimotos thyroiditis
Congenital birth defects
Radiation treatments to the neck to treat cancers
Surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid gland
Drugs for treatment of hyperthyroidism, lithium

Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone
(PTH)
mobilizes calcium from
bone
Enhances Ca2+
reabsorption at kidneys
Stimulates formation
and secretion of
Calcitriol at the
kidneys

Parathyroid Gland Malfunctions

Hypoparathyroidism
Muscular weakness; neurological problems,
formation of dense bone, tetany due to low
blood Ca2+ levels

Hyperparathyroidism
Neurological, mental, muscular problems due
to high blood Ca2+ levels; weak and brittle
bones

Thymus Gland
Thymosin (Controls immune system)

Pancreas
Insulin (Allows glucose to enter cells;
LOWERS blood glucose)
Glucagon (Stimulates liver to make glucose;
RAISES blood glucose)
Islets of Langerhans have two cell types
Alpha () cells that produce glucagon
Beta () cells that produce insulin

Adrenal Glands
Medulla
a. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
(Increases: blood glucose, heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing rate, &
dilates bronchioles)
b. Nor-epinephrine (nor-adrenaline)
(Same as Epinephrine)

Adrenal Glands
Cortex
a. Cortisol/Hydrocortisone (During stressful
situations it is released to increase blood
glucose; release amino acids from skeletal muscle
and lipids from adipose tissue; promote
peripheral utilization of lipids; anti-inflammatory
effects)
Produced in the Zona fasciculata

Cortex (contd)
b. Aldosterone (Controls salt & water
balance)
Produced in the Zona glomerulosa
c. Androgens (not important in adult
men; encourages bone and muscle
growth and blood formation in women
and children)
Produced in the Zona reticularis

Ovaries
1. Estrogen (Creates female
secondary sex characteristics)
2. Progesterone (Thickens the
uterus lining each month)

Testes
Testosterone (Creates male
secondary sex characteristics;
spermatogenesis)

Hirsutism

Kidneys
1. Erythropoeitin: RBC production
2. Renin : Renin-angiotensin mechanism kidneys
release renin, which is converted into angiotensin
II that in turn stimulates aldosterone release

Kidney (contd)
3. Calcitriol:

calcium and phosphate absorption along the

digestive tract;
stimulation of the formation and differetiation of
osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts;
stimulation of bone resorption by osteoclasts;
stimulation of calcium reabsorption by kidneys;
suppression of PTH production

Heart
ANP (Atrial Naturetic Peptide) which
causes Na ions to be excreted in the
kidney (Lose water & ultimately blood
pressure)