*NUTRITION

process of
organisms obtain energy from food, for
growth, maintenance and repair of
damaged tissues

*NUTRIENTS

substances that are

required for the nourishment of an organism

*Autotroph

Organisms which practice

autotrophic nutrition

Photoautotrophs

*Manufacture their own food

*Using light or chemical energy

Chemoautotrophs

to synthesis complex organic

compounds

*Heterotroph

Organisms that
cannot synthesize their own nutrients

*Heterotrophic nutrition an organism obtains

energy through the intake and digestion of
organic substances

*METABOLISM

all chemical
reactions in the body

*BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)

energy consumed by the body in a day
while carrying out all the basic processes
(excretion, breathing, etc.)

20%

* 7 classes of food in the

correct quantities and
proportion, taken
according to age, sex,
etc.

*Essential for the healthy

growth & development
of the body

20%

60%

Adequate daily supply:

*Energy-providing foods (carbohydrates & lipids)

*Growth-promoting foods (proteins)
*Maintain health (Minerals, vitamins, water &
roughage/fibre)

*A balanced diet will be able to meet the

daily energy requirement of the body.

*Age (teenagers & growing children)

*Sex (male)
*Pregnancy & lactation
*Occupation (active & heavy work)
*Size/body weight (small size)
*Climate (live in cold)

(kJ g )
-1

1000

CALCULATE THE ENERGY

VALUE OF PEANUT:
Mass of
peanut
Mass of
water

0.5g
20g

Initial
250C
temperature
of water
Final
420C
temperature
of water

Answer :
___________ J g-1

CALCULATE THE ENERGY

VALUE OF PEANUT:
Mass of
peanut

0.5g

Mass of
20g
water
Initial
290C
temperature
of water
Final
660C
temperature
of water

Answer :
__________ kJ g-1

Test for

Reagent

Observation

Starch

Iodine solution

Brownish-yellow turn to blue-black

Reducing sugar

Benedicts solution

Brick-red precipitated is formed/

Orange or green precipitated is formed

Test for

Reagent

Observation

Protein

Biurets test
Protein (turns purple)
(20% NaOH solution and Non protein (remain blue)
1% CuSO4 Solution)

lipid

Emulsion test

Filter paper shows a translucent

mark

(Dichlorophenolindophenol)
0.1%
1.0mg/cm3

* Complex organic compounds needed in relatively small quantities

by living organisms

* Maintenance of good health & efficient metabolism

* Fat soluble vitamins (vit. A, D, E, K) stored in body fat
* Water soluble vitamins (vit. B, C) cannot be stored in body
* Vit. B complex acts as coenzymes

* SOURCES: green vegetables, egg yolk, dairy

products, butter, fish oil, etc.

* FUNCTIONS:
* Forma light-sensitive pigment in
retina

* Acts as antioxidant
* Maintenance of epithelial tissues
* Delays ageing process

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES :
* Vision problems (night blindness )
* Xeropthalmia (cornea
becomes dry and opaque )

* Scaly skin

* SOURCES: dairy products, egg yolk,

cod liver oil, milk, synthesised in
human skin

* FUNCTIONS:
* Aids in absorption of calcium

&

phosphorus

* Promotes bone growth

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Rickets
* Deformities

such as bowed legs

and knock knees develop

* Stunted growth in children

* Osteomalacia (softening of
bones in adults)

* SOURCES: wheatgerm, nuts, grains, olive

oil

* FUNCTIONS:
* Acts as antioxidant
* Produces red blood cells
* Prevents damage to phospholipids
in plasma membrane

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Infertility
* Muscular dystrophy ( )
* Anaemia

* SOURCES: egg yolk, cabbage, spinach,

synthesised by intestinal
bacteria

* FUNCTIONS:
* Important in blood clotting

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Excessive bleeding
* Anaemia

* SOURCES: yeast extract, whole grains, nuts, milk, liver,

wheatgerm, legumes

* FUNCTIONS:
* Precursor ( ) of coenzyme which functions in carbohydrate
metabolism

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Beri-beri

(muscle weakness, nerve disorder, heart disorder,

swollen feet, loss of skin sensitivity)

* SOURCES: wheatgerm, dairy products, liver, eggs, yeast extract, milk

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of coenzymes in energy metabolism
* For healthy nervous system

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Sore eyes & swollen tongues
* Skin lesions at the corner of mouth,
nose, ears

* SOURCES: liver, lean meat, legumes, unpolished rice, fish, yeast

extract, milk

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of coenzymes in energy metabolism
* For healthy nervous system, skin and intestines

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Pellagra

(skin & gastrointestinal lesions,

Nervous disorder)

* SOURCES: Egg yolk, green vegetables, liver, fish, meat

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of coenzymes A in energy metabolism

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Muscle cramps , fatigue

, impaired motor coordination

* SOURCES: potatoes, meat, fish, whole grains, nuts, yeast extract, liver,
milk

* FUNCTIONS:
* Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Irritability
* Muscular twitching
* Retarded growth
* Kidney stones

* SOURCES: milk, meat, egg and cheese

* FUNCTIONS:
* A coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism
* Formation of red blood cells

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Pernicious anaemia
* Neurological disorders
* Weight loss

* SOURCES: green vegetables, oranges,

nuts, legumes, whole grains

* FUNCTIONS:
* Acts as coenzyme in nucleic acid
& amino acid metabolism

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Anaemia
* Gatsrointestinal disturbances
* Diarrhoea
* Birth defects

* SOURCES: legumes, vegetables, meat

* FUNCTIONS:
* Coenzyme in the synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acids

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Fatigue
* Depression
* Nausea
* Muscular pains

* SOURCES: Citrus fruits, tomatoes, green peppers

* FUNCTIONS:
* Required in synthesis of collagen
* Strong antioxidant
* Maintenance of cartilage, bone, dentin & healthy blood vessels
* Aids in detoxification
* Improves iron absorption
* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Poor collagen formation ; Scaly skin; Scurvy
* Epithelial haemorrhages
* Degeneration of blood vessels, muscles and cartilage
* Delayed wound healing
* Impaired immunity

*Simple inorganic nutrients

*Do not provide energy
*Vital for the various functions of the body
*Major minerals macrominerals (>100mg/ day)
eg. Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus & sodium

*Microminerals (<20mg/day)

eg. Cobalt , fluorine, iodine, manganese ,

zinc & molybdenum

* SOURCES: Milk, cheese, vegetables, anchovies

* FUNCTIONS:
* Bone and tooth formation
* Aids in blood clotting
* Needed in muscle and nerve coordination
* Transmission of nerve impulses

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Rickets
* Delayed blood clotting
* Osteoporosis

, grains

* SOURCES: Green leafy vegetables, whole grains, meat

* FUNCTIONS:
* Activates most types of enzymes in protein synthesis
* Maintain normal functions of muscles and nerves
* Bone and teeth formation

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Retarded functions
and nerves

of muscles

* SOURCES: green vegetables, liver, meat, legumes

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of haemoglobin
* Component of enzymes involved in cellular respiration

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Iron-deficiency anaemia
* Reduced resistance to infection

* SOURCES: table salt

* FUNCTIONS:
* Maintains acid-base balance and water balance
* Normal muscle and nerve functions
* Involved in nerve impulse transmission

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Muscle cramps
* Loss of appetite

* SOURCES: table salt

* FUNCTIONS:
* Acid-base balance
* Osmotic balance
* Nerve function
* Formation of gastric juice

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Muscle cramps
* Loss of appetite

* SOURCES: meat, dairy products,

fruits & vegetables, grains

* FUNCTIONS:
* Needed for the correct functioning of the heart
* Maintenance of acid-base balance
* Maintenance of water balance
* Muscle and nerve functions

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Heart failure
* Muscular weakness
* Paralysis

* SOURCES: Seafood, seaweed,

iodised salt

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of the thyroxine hormone

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Goitre

* SOURCES: Meat, fish, nuts, milk, dairy products

* FUNCTIONS:
* Component of certain amino acids
* Needed for muscle growth

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Symptoms of
protein deficiency

* SOURCES: Milk, cheese, egg, grains

* FUNCTIONS:
* Bone and tooth formation
* Acid-base balance
* Nucleotide synthesis
* Involved in the transfer of energy in ATP

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* Rickets
* Demineralisation of bones
* General weakness
* Loss of calcium and other minerals

* SOURCES: Drinking water, fish, tea

* FUNCTIONS:
* Maintenance of strong teeth and bone structure
* Helps resist tooth decay

* DEFICIENCY DISEASES:
* High frequency of tooth decay

* Indigestible part of plant food

* Cant absorbed by body
* Functions:

cellulose

* Provides bulk (volume) to the intestinal contents

* Aids in peristalsis
* Aids in bowel movement
* Lowers the cholesterol level in the blood
* Deficiency can lead to constipation

* Make up 70% of the total body weight

* Functions:
* Medium for all cellular biochemical reactions
* Medium of transportation for nutrients & gases
* Regulates body temperature
* Removes excretory waste
* Maintains osmotic pressure in tissue & plasma
* Aids peristaltic movement
* Dissolves most chemical substances

*Water loss will result in dehydration

* adult requires 2 to 2.5 L per day

* Nutritionl guidelines : Help consumers making

choices about their nutrient intake.

*Consumers can base their nutrient intake on food

guide pyramid.

*Each target group needs to choose a diet

appropriate to its needs

*Pregnant mothers
*Infants and children
*Teenagers
*Vegetarians
*Athletes
*The aged
*People with specific diseases

Vary according:
Age
Lifestyle
Health conditions
Nutritional needs

* >14% energy, >20% proteins, >50% calcium & phosphorus

* > calcium & phosphorus
* Formation of strong bones in the growing foetuses

* > folic acid and iron

* Formation of red blood cells

* > proteins
* Formation of new tissues

* > fibre
* Prevent constipation

* < fats, sugar & caffeinated drinks

* Not to take alcoholic drinks

*Infants

: >proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins

& minerals to grow

*Babies : > calcium and phosphorus to form strong bone

& teeth

*Growing children: > proteins, vitamins and minerals

(calcium & phosphorus)

*They also require more energy-rich food, more protein

*They have a higher basal metabolic rate, need to build
tissue for growth.

* > proteins and vitamins for rapid growth

* > carbohydrates to provide energy for active lifestyles
* < fatty and oily foods

*Prevent pimples and acne

* > fruits and vegetables

* Supply vitamins and minerals

* Female teenagers need more iron (after menstruation)

*Prevent iron-deficiency anaemia

* > plant proteins, eg. Grains, soya beans, nuts, tofu, etc.
* Need to vary their diets
* Plant proteins lack one or more essential amino acids

* >iron, calcium, zinc, vitamins B12, and vitamin D

* Depending types of sports they are engaged

* Weight lifting : need high protein foods - build new tissues &
strong muscles

* Runners: need high proteins, vitamins, minerals & carbohydrates provide constant energy

* Need calcium, sodium, potassium to prevent muscle cramps

* > proteins, and minerals (calcium & phosphorus)

*Prevent osteoporosis
*> vitamin D
*Prevent osteomalacia
*> folic acid
*Helps synthesis red blood cells
*< salt, carbohydrates and fats
*Reduce risk of high blood pressure,

diabetes, and coronary heart disease

*> water and dietary fibre

*Prevent constipation

* Need special diets

* Avoid consuming food that will worsen their conditions
* Diabetes mellitus avoid sugar & foods rich in
carbohydrates

* Coronary heart disease < consumption of

saturated fats & cholesterol

* High blood pressure avoid salty food

* Consume more vegetables and fruits and eat more fish
oil

* Malnutrition refers to unbalanced diet

, deficient / excess in certain nutrients.

* Marasmus

- Occurs in children aged 912

- Drastic loss of body

weight due to severe

protein deficiency & lack
of energy-providing
food.

- child become very thin &

wrinkled skin

* Kwashiorkor
- Child does not receive
sufficient protein.

-Flaky skin, thin muscles,

thin hair

- swelling of body especially

abdomen bcz of fluid retention

in tissue

-Stunted growth

Flaky skin

* Osteoporosis
- Due to insufficient calcium intake

- Bones become brittle , porous &

crack
- Bone fracture at wrist, hip &
backbone

* Osteomalacia (Soft bones)

- Usually occurs in pregnant woman
- Due to lack of calcium, phosphorus & vitamin D
-Deficient in vitamin D reduced calcium
absorption form digested food This encourages
calcium intake from bones.

* Consuming food rich in carbohydrates will bring

about onset of diabetes mellitus , obesity

& dental caries .

*Obese: weighs 20% more than average weight

correspond to height

Obese people whose diet rich in saturated fats

may have high risk of developing

*Cardiovascular disease
*High blood pressure
*Atherosclerosis ( risk of stroke
& brain haemorrhage )

*Diabetes mellitus
*Cancers

Taking too much sugar can cause diabetes

mellitus !

Take too much sugar blood glucose

level increase body cant produce

sufficient insulin to covert glucose
into glycogen cause diabetes
mellitus

Excess lipids in diet are convert into body fat

(adipose tissue)

Diet rich in saturated fat may cause

cardiovascular disease.
For example: Atherosclerosis ,
Arteriolesclerosis ,
Heart attack
Stroke

Atherosclerosis :

Deposits of plaque in the internal lining

of blood vessel

Plaque consists of fibrous connective tissue

, lipids (cholesterol)

Cause narrowing of blood vessels lumen

reduce blood flow

Arteriosclerosis :

Plaque in the artery becomes hardened

by calcium deposit cause
arteriosclerosis

Causes artery to loss its elasticity

As artery blocked by plaque, risk of

heart attacks & strokes

If coronary artery is partially blocked,

person may have chest pain (angina pectoris).
Part of the heart is not receiving sufficient
oxygen.
Fully blocked coronary artery will result in
stroke or myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Diet rich in saturated fat may also

cause hypertension (high blood
pressure)!

Narrowing of blood vessels lumen

by atherosclerosis impedes blood
flow blood
pressure

blood pressure , small artery

burst, cause stroke ( death of
nerve tissue in brain)

* Avoid food rich in fats, red meat

* No Smoking
* More exercise
* Consume more fruits and
vegetables

 Excess minerals osmotic pressure

imbalances

Excess sodium high blood pressure

Excess salt & lack of water formed kidney
stone make urination painful

Lack of exercise & perspire to remove excess

salt kidney failure

 Excess calcium formed kidney stone

Excess iron damage in liver & kidney,
kidney

toxicity

* Excess water soluble vitamins not

harmful to the body can be excreted
through urine

* Excess fat soluble vitamins

accumulations to toxic levels in the body

Vitamins

Effects

Hair loss, vomiting, liver and bone damage

B6

Numb feet and poor coordination

B3

Flushed face &

hands
Liver damage

C
D

Gastrointestinal upset
Calcification of soft tissues

Kidney damage

Liver damage & anaemia

 increase the uric acid content in the

blood

Uric acid form crystal in soft tissue of joints

lead to gout

Uric acid can crystallize can form kidney stone

Avoid food rich in purine nucleic acid

* Digestion : process that breaks down

complex food substances into simpler, soluble
molecules that are small enough for the body to
absorb.

* Take place in alimentary canal (from

mouth to anus )

Consists of

mouth
oral cavity
pharynx
oesophagus

Consists of

Small intestine
-

duodenum ,

jejunum

ileum

Large intestine
-

appendix , caecum ,
colon , rectum

Anus

Digestion = break down

Food

Beak down Metabolic processes

into

Carbohydrates

Glucose Generate energy

Proteins Amino acid Systhesis new proteins

( enzymes, hormones,

antibodies)
Lipids

Glycerol Major component of plasma

& fatty membranes
acids

Physical digestion :
breaking up of large pieces food into

smaller pieces by mechanical means

.

For example:
Chewing food

Churning action of
stomach

Chemical digestion :
breaking down complex food into simple
soluble molecules by enzymes .

involve hydrolysis reaction

Digestion in Mouth

1. Digestive process starts in mouth.

2. Chewing action breaks

food into
smaller pieces increase surface area for
digestive enzyme to act on

Digestion in Mouth
3. Presence of food trigger secretion of
saliva by salivary glands.
4. Saliva contains salivary amylase
( starch maltose )
5. Chewed food is roll into a bolus now for
swallowing.

Food
bolus

Digestion in Mouth
6. During swallowing, epiglottis
closed prevent food from entering trachea .
7. Bolus enters oesophagus .
8.

Mucus in oesophagus lubricates the bolus,

bolus moved along the oesphagus by peristalsis
.

Digestion in Mouth
9. When cardiac sphincter relax
, bolus enters the stomach .
* Cardiac sphincter: a ring of muscle controlling
the opening of stomach

Digestion in Stomach

1. Stomach

: thicked wall organ below

diaphragm , highly folded inner wall.

2. Epithelial

lining of stomach has gastric

glands : secretes gastric juice

3. Contents

of
gastric
juice:
mucus,
hydrochloric acid, enzymes pepsin &
rennin.

Digestion in Stomach
4. Hydrochloric acid :

Creates acidic condition (pH 1.5 -2.0 for

action of enzymes in stomach)

Stops activity of salivary amylase

Kill bacteria in food

Digestion in Stomach
5. Pepsin :

Breaks down protein into polypeptide

6. Rennin :

Convert caseinogen (soluble milk protein)

into casein (insoluble protein)

Erepsin

Digestion in Stomach
7. Mucus secreted by goblet cells
in stomach: protect stomach wall from
hydrochloric acid & digestive enzymes.

Digestion in Stomach
8. Food in the stomach is thoroughly churned

& mixed with gastric juice due to

peristaltic contraction of stomach.
9. The food now is in a semi-fluid state called
chyme .
10.Pyloric sphincter
duodenum.

relax,

chyme

enters

Digestion in Small
intestine
1.

Small intestine consists of duodenum ,

jejunum & ileum .

2.

Duodenum received chyme from stomach &

secretion from pancreas and gall bladder .

Digestion in Duodenum
What do duodenum received from liver ?

Liver secretes bile , bile stored in gall bladder

.

Bile (enter duodenum via bile duct )

Reduce acidity of chyme

No enzymes, create alkaline condition (pH 7.6

8.6) for enzymes action in duodenum

Digestion in Duodenum
What do duodenum received from liver?

Bile salt
-

emulsify lipid ( transform large

lipid into tiny droplets, increase surface
area for digestion by enzyme).

Digestion in Duodenum
What do duodenum received from pancreas?

Pancreatic juice which contains pancreatic

amylase , trypsin & lipase

Optimum pH for pancreatic enzymes to function :pH

7.1 -8.2

Pancreatic juice enters duodenum via pancreatic

duct .

Digestion in Duodenum

Digestion

of starch, proteins & lipids

take place in duodenum.

Digestion in Ileum

Glands

in ileum secretes intestinal juice

which contained digestive enzymes.

Intestinal enzyme require alkaline condition

to function.

Digestion in Ileum

Digestion in Ileum
At the end of digestive process,

All

carbohydrates monosaccharides
(glucose, fructose, galactose)

Proteins amino acid

Lipids Glycerol & fatty acid

Digestion in Ileum

Vitamins

& minerals :too small, no

need to digest

Dietary fibre (roughage)

: cant
be digested, human do not have
cellulase enzyme.

How does an enzyme act on starch

Test with
iodine and
benedicts
solution

Conclusion: Salivary amylase hydrolyse starch into

reducing sugars.

How does an enzyme act on a protein food sample

Observation after
20 minutes:

A)Cloudy to clear
B)Cloudy to cloudy
C)Clear to clear
Conclusion:
The enzyme pepsin hydrolyses albumen (protein)
into polypeptides in acidic conditions.

 Herbivores feed on cellulose , an

insoluble polysaccharide .

Cellulase

enzymes are required

to break down cellulose.

Digestion in ruminants (eg. cow & goat)

Stomach of ruminants has 4 chambers: rumen , reticulum

, omasum & abomasum

Enable them to carry out rumination ( process of regurgitating

food & rechewing)

Digestion in ruminants (eg. cow & goat)

1st two chambers have bacteria & protozoa

which secrete cellulase .

Partially chewed food swallowed into rumen

Bacteria & protozoa produce cellulase
Breakdown products absorbed by bacteria,
protozoa & cow

4
3
1

3
4
1

Food enter reticulum, cellulose further

hydrolysis
Content in reticulum called cud
Cud regurgitated into mouth to chewed again
to soften & break down cellulose.

3
4
1

Cud reswalllowed & moved into omasum

Large particles of food are broken down into
smaller pieces by peristalsis.
Water is removed from cud.

3
4
1

Food moved into abomasum (true stomach)

Gastric juice contained enzymes digest
protein & other particle.
Food then passed into small intestine &
absorbed.

The digestive system of rodents and other

herbivores
* In rodents like rats, their caecum

& appendix are large to store

cellulase producing bacteria.

The digestive system of rodents and other

herbivores
* In herbivores like rabbit, breakdown products passed
through alimentary canal twice .

* 1st

batch faeces: soft & watery, eaten again to

enable the animals to absorb the products of
bacterial breakdown for second time

* 2nd bath faeces: hard & dry

Aspect

Humans

Ruminants Rodents and

others

Nutritional
grouping

Omnivore Herbivores Mostlyherbivores

Someomnivores

Numbers
stomach

Size caecum

Cellulase
producing

Not large Not large

Large

Not

Present

Present

Aspect

Humans Ruminants

Rodents and
others

Place cellulase
producing

Rumen &
reticulum

Caecum

Regurgitation of
food

Takes place

Place cellulose
broken down

Rumen &
reticulum

Caecum

Ingesting partially X
digested food that
is passes out the
body

Takes place

Number of time
1
food pass through
alimentary canal

Aspect

Humans

Place where
gastric juice
produced

Stomach

Ruminant Rodents and

s
others
Abomasum Stomach

Products and None

by-products
of cellulose
digestion

Simple
sugars and
other
essential
nutrients

Simple
sugars and
other
essential
nutrients

Presence of
undigested
cellulose

None

none

Yes

 Caused by excessive intake of food, eating too

much oily food/ eating too fast

Will feel pain in abdomen , nausea ,

vomiting, bloated stomach

If food is not chewed properly, effectiveness of

digestive enzyme decreased.

Eat moderately & chewing food properly

Lack of lactase :

difficult to digest lactose

(lactose intolerance)

Damage of digestive enzyme secretion organs (eg.

pancreas): production of enzyme decrease digestion of

food will be disturbed body not able to obtain sufficient
nutrient.

 Gallstone formed in bile duct & gall bladder .

Gallstone formed through hardening of cholesterol/

excessive secretion of bilirubin or bile salt .

When gall stone blocked bile duct, bile cannot be

transported out, lipid cannot be emulsified

& hard to digest.

Usually occurs in obese people.

Major site of nutrient

absorption:

Ileum

 Wall of small intestine has specialized epithelial cells for digestion

&

nutrient absorption.

Internal lining of small intestine: highly folded, covered by finger-like

projections called villi .

Epithelial cells of villi have microscopic projections called microvilli

.

Villi :
numerous in number: surface area
for nutrient absorption.

thin

walled (only one cell thick):

digested food can be absorbed quickly.

have

network of capillaries: for

absorption & efficient transport of
digested food.

contain

lacteals : for absorbing

fatty acid and glycerols.

 Digestion completed small intestine absorbed

end products (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids &
glycerol) into bloodstream or lymphatic
system (lacteal ).

 Some digested products are directly bring to

liver for assimilation .

Assimilation: Cells used nutrients to make

complex compounds/ structural components.

- Eg. Transform amino acid into protein

Liver controls amount of nutrients released
into blood circulatory system.
Digested
products
Glucose, amino
acid

Liver

heart

All
body
cells

*Secretes bile

(contained bile pigment &

bile salt, no enzyme)

*Secretes fibrinogen

, prothrombin
and plasma proteins (clotting agents)

*Regulation of blood glucose concentration (remove

glucose from blood & convert to glycogen)

*Detoxification

(removing toxic substances)

*Storage of nutrients
- Excess glucose is converted into fats
- Fat-soluble vitamins
- Vitamin B12
- Iron from haemoglobin

Deamination of amino acid

- Excess amino acid is breakdown into urea

Glucose and Amino acids

Moved from intestine lumen into villus
epithelial cells by facilitated
diffusion

remaining nutrients (active transport)

From villus epithelial cells blood capillaries
hepatic portal vein liver all parts of body

Water
Moved from intestine lumen villus
epithelial cells blood capillaries
by osmosis.

Water- soluble vitamins

(vitamin B & C)
Moved from intestine lumen villus epithelial
cells blood capillaries.

Fat- soluble vitamins (vitamin A,

D, E & K)/ Fatty acid & glycerol
Glycerol & Fatty acid (undergo condensation to
form tiny lipid droplets), Fat soluble vitamin
Lacteal (lymphatic system) right lymphatic duct &
thoracic duct subclavian veins
(bloodstream)

Process of assimilation in the liver

Amino acid

Liver synthesis plasma protein from amino acid (for

blood clotting, osmoregulation)

When shorting of glucose & glycogen, amino acids

converts into glucose.

Deamination of amino acids occur. Urea is produced

& transported into kidneys for excretion.

Process of assimilation in the liver

Glucose

Used for respiration

Excess glucose is converted into glycogen
When blood glucose & body needs energy,
glycogen convert back to glucose

If glycogen stored in liver is fulled, excess

glucose is converted into fat.

Process of assimilation in the liver

Lipids

Enter heart through subclavian veins and

transported to body cells

Process of assimilation in the cells

Amino acids

Synthesis new protoplasm & repair of

damaged tissue

Synthesis enzymes & hormones

Synthesis proteins of plasma membrane

Process of assimilation in the cells

Glucose

Oxidized to release energy during cellular

respiration

Excess glucose stored as glycogen in muscle

Process of assimilation in the cells

Lipids

Phospholipids & cholesterol form components

of plasma membrane

Stored around organ to protect organ

Excess fats stored under the skin as reserved
energy.

If body lack glucose, fats are oxidized to

release energy.

* study the movement of substances through the Visking tube

Distilled water
to determine
the presence
of starch and
reducing sugar

Iodine test
Benedicts test

Colour of mixture
Test

0 min

10 min

20 min

30 min

Iodine
test

Brownishyellow

Brownishyellow

Brownishyellow

Brownishyellow

Benedict
s test

Blue

Orange

Brick-red
ppt

Brick-red
ppt

Visking tube= epithelial lining of the small intestine (semi-permeable)

Distilled water= blood
Glucose (small) able to diffuse across the wall of small intestine
and absorbed into the bloodstream ------ Digestion is very important

Colon
Intestinal contents enter colon.

Intestinal contents: water, undigested food

substances, dead cells, dead bacteria, indigestible

fibre.

Movement of undigested materials along colon is

slow & helped by peristalsis .

Colon absorbs 90% water & minerals.

Colon
Absorption of water from undigested remains in
the colon results in formation of faeces .

Faeces:
- Indigestible residue of food
- dead cells from intestinal lining, bile pigment
& toxic substances

- Wall of colon secretes mucus

to bind the
faeces & lubricates the movement of faeces in
colon.

Rectum
After 12-24 hours in colon, faeces pass to rectum
for temporary storage.

As faeces accumulate, pressure in rectum

increases, causing a desire to expel faeces from

body.

Process of
defaecation
Defaecation : elimination of faeces

Controlled by muscles around anus

When rectum is full, muscles around rectal
wall contract to eject faeces via anus.

Microorganisms in colon

Escherichia coli lives symbiotically in the

intestine by digesting organic substances in
colon.

E. coli synthesis vitamin B & K.

Microorganism is useful:
-Secrete antibiotics to inhibit
harmful microorganisms.

-Maintain a stable environment

in alimentary canal.

* Constipation caused by faeces moving too slow in

colon, greater amount water reabsorbed in colon, hard faeces.

*Ways to avoid constipation:

- Drink a lot water
Water softens
- Take sufficient fibre
the fibre
Increase bulk

Stimulated
muscles to
push out the
residue

Chronic constipation is associated with

haemorrhoids & colon cancer.

Haemorrhoids :
- Abnormally swollen vein in rectum & anus
- Caused by too much pressure in rectum, forcing blood vein to
stretch, bulge & rupture

- Bulging haemorrhoidal veins are irritated, cause surrounding

membrane swell, burn, itch, painful & bleed.

 Colon cancer :

-Malignant tumours in colon & rectum.

- Due to diet high in fat. Break down products
from fat formed carcinogen.

- Intake more fibres

* Good eating habits:

Taking meal at appropriate time
Dont overeating/ eat too little
Balanced diet
Sufficient fibre (fruit & vegetables)
2L-3L water/day
Avoid excessive fatty food/sugar/ sodium

Gastritis
* epithelial lining of stomach becomes inflamed/damages
* caused by:
- food taken at irregular time (absence of food acidic gastric
juice reacting on the epithelial lining gastric ulcer)

- Excessive alcohol & stress

-Taking aspirins/ pain relievers regularly

* Infection withHelicobacter pylori(H. pylori) :A

bacteria that lives in the mucous lining of the stomach.

Treatment: Antacids
(sodium bicarbonate & magnesium hydroxide
neutralize hydrochloric acid)

* Predisposed to Diseases:
- Cardiovascular disease
- hypertension
- Diabetes mellitus
* Factors:
- Eating excessive (carbohydrates & fats)
- lack of exercise

Treatment:Balanced
diet

Body weight
exceeds 20%
the normal
weight

 Psychological disorder , intentionally

depriving oneself of food to achieve severe loss in
body weight.

Loss appetite to eat (fear to gain weight)

Occurs frequently among female adults & teenagers
lose of fats and muscles
-Lead to disruption of:
Function of the heart,
endocrine system,
reproduction system ,
potentially fatal

Treatment:
Nutrition, counselling

* Victim has normal body weight

* Excessive food intake & purging
* Victims feel guilty , ashamed
depressed after this

* Self-induces vomiting

, disgusted or

/ misuse of laxatives /

diuretics

Effects of purging:
- injury to digestive tract
- imbalance mineral salts
- dehydration

Treatment:
Counselling ,

Patient also experience:

- irregular periods
- kidney, cardiovascular, liver
disease

Nutritional labels

Nutritional
contents

Freshness

Food additives

Effects of a defective digestive system

* Alimentary canal unhealthy

defective pancreas/
stomach gastric juice & pancreatic juices
secretion halted

* Intestinal lining inflamed

food absorption

disrupted

*Body cells deprived of nutrients

system

weaken immune

Taking care of the digestive system

* proper meals at regular times

* avoid taking junk food

nutritional value)

(low in