EAS 665

BRIDGE ENGINEERING

BRIDGE
LOADING
NOORHAZLINDA BINTI ABD RAHMAN

INTRODUCTION
Suppose a bridge engineer
must first list all the possible
loads on the superstructure
(deck slab of the bridge):
A) Permanent Loads:
01. Dead Loads
02. Superimposed Dead
Loads
03. Pressures (earth, water,
ice, etc.)

B) Temporary Loads:
04. Vehicle Live Loads
05. Earthquake Forces
06. Wind Forces
07. Channel Forces
08. Longitudinal Forces
09. Centrifugal Forces
10. Impact Forces
11. Construction Loads
C) Deformation and
Response Loads:
12. Creep
13. Shrinkage
14. Settlement
15. Uplift
16. Thermal Forces
D) Group Loading

INTRODUCTION
The loads on the bridge,
partly:
imposed by the vehicle and
the user; and
by nature.
The standard used in bridge
load determination is
BS5400:Part 2: 2006 (The
Code).
Any bridge structure has to
support moving loads, and
transmits their effects through
its various components to the
soil on which it is constructed.

It also supports and transmits

in a similar manner the selfweight of its various
components.
The bridge also subjected to
other external forces: wind,
velocity of water and
earthquake (seismic).
None of the forces mentioned
can be precisely estimated
except in the case of selfweight and the live loads in the
static state.

INTRODUCTION
Bridge Components
1.
2.
3.
Joint

Superstructure
Substructure
Foundation

Deck
Wing wall

Bearing
Abutment

Footing/foundation

Joint

Parapet
Deck
Pier

Footing/foundation

Bearing

Wing wall

Abutment

Footing/foundation

INTRODUCTION
Bridge Types
Highway
bridge

Railway
bridge

Footway/
cycle bridge

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes
Carriageway (Cl. 3.2.9.1)
Part of the running surface
include all traffic lanes, hard
shoulders, hard strips and
marker strips.
The carriageway width is the
width between raised kerbs.
In the absence of raised kerbs
it is the width between safety
fences, less the amount of setback required for these fences,
being not less than 0.6 m or
more than 1.0 m from the
traffic face of each fence

13600

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes
Traffic lanes (Cl. 3.2.9.2)
the lanes that are marked
on the running surface of
the bridge and are
normally used by traffic.
13600

Notional lanes (Cl.

3.2.9.3) notional parts of
the carriageway used
solely for the purpose of
applying the specified
live loads.
13600

Highway carriageway
and lanes
c

Highway carriageway and lanes

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Relationship between carriageway and notional

lanes:
Carriageway widths of 5 m or more (Cl.
3.2.9.3.1)
Carriageway widths of less than 5 m (Cl.
3.2.9.3.2)
Dual carriageway structures (Cl. 3.2.9.3.3)

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Carriageway widths, x (m)

No. of notional lanes

2
3
4
5
6

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes
Typical c/section of single bridge structure for less than 3 spans
450

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes
Typical c/section of single bridge structure for less than 3 spans
450

15000

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes
Carriageway less than 5 m (Cl. 3.2.9.3.2):
The carriageway shall be taken to have one notional
lane with a width of 2.50 m.
In the case of no. of lane is not an integer, the loading on
the fractional part of a lane shall be taken prorate the
loading of one lane.

Dual carriageway structures (Cl. 3.2.9.3.3):

Where dual carriageways are carried on one
superstructure, the no. of notional lanes on the bridge
shall be taken as the sum of the no. of notional lanes in
each of the single carriageways as specified in Cl.
3.2.9.3.1.

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Typical c/section of dual bridge structure (w/o cycle lane)

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Typical c/section of dual bridge structure (w/o cycle lane)

10500

10500

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Typical c/section of dual bridge structure (with cycle lane)

THE PRINCIPLES
Highway carriageway and lanes

Typical c/section of dual bridge structure (with cycle lane)

12552

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY DESIGN

LOADS & LOAD FACTORc
Loads (Cl. 3.2.1):
External forces applied
to the structure; and
Imposed deformations
such as those caused
by restraint of
movement due to
changes in temperature.
E.g.: axle loads, bending
moment, shear forces

Load effects (Cl.

3.2.1.1):
The stress resultants
in the structure arising
from its respond to
loads.
E.g.: compressive
stress, flexural stress
and shear stress.

Axle of the wheel

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Dead load (Cl. 3.2.2):
The weight of the
materials; and
Parts of the structure
that are structural
elements;
Excluding superimposed
materials (road
surfacing, rail track
ballast, parapets, mains,
ducts, miscellaneous
furniture, etc.).

Superimposed dead
load (Cl. 3.2.3):
The weight of all
materials forming loads
on the structure that are
not structural
elements.
E.g.: premix, parapet,
services (water mains,
lamp posts, etc.)

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Live loads (Cl. 3.2.4):
Loads due to vehicles
or pedestrian traffic.
Two categories:
1. Primary
Vertical live loads (static
loads) due to the mass
of traffic.

2. Secondary
Loads due to changes in
speed and direction of
the vehicle traffic.
E.g.: Lurching, nosing,
centrifugal, longitudinal,
skidding and collision
loads.

Classification of bridge
loads:
1. Permanent loads (Cl.
4.3.1):

Dead load;
Superimposed DL;
Loads due to filling
materials;
Loads derive from the
nature of the structural
material (e.g.: shrinkage
and creep of concrete);
Effects of differential
settlement of supports.

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
2. Transient loads (Cl.
4.3.2);

Loads other than

permanent ones;
E.g.: wind, temperature,
erection, primary and
secondary highway
loads, exceptional
loads; footway & cycle
track loading.

Combination of loads (Cl.

4.4):

3 principal;
2 secondary;
Combination 1 (Cl. 4.4.1);
Combination 2 (Cl. 4.4.2);
Combination 3 (Cl. 4.4.3);
Combination 4 (Cl. 4.4.4);
Combination 5 (Cl. 4.4.5);

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Application of loads:
Each element and
structure shall be
examined under the
effects of loads that
can coexist in each
combination
Selection to cause
most adverse effect:
Design loads shall be
selected & applied in
such a way that most
adverse total effects
is caused in the
element or structure
under consideration

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Permanent loads
Dead load:
DL in the superstructure:
Beams;
Deck slab;
Diaphragm.

DL acting on the abutment:

Beams;
Deck slab;
Diaphragm;
S/w of abutment;
Backfill;
Earth pressure;
Approach slab.

DL acting on the piers:

Beams;
Deck slab;
Diaphragm;
S/w of the pier;
Backfill.

The nominal dead load is

calculated from the normal
assumed values for the
specific weight of material:

In-situ concrete
Pre-cast concrete
Premix (Asphaltic concrete)
Backfill

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Permanent loads
Superimposed DL:
Filling materials:
The weight of all
materials forming loads
on the structure that are
not structural elements.
E.g.: road surfacing, rail
track ballast, parapets,
mains, ducts,
miscellaneous furniture,
etc.

fL is large due to the

reason the bridge deck
are often resurfaced.

Loads are calculated by

conventional
principles of soil
mechanics;
fL is high due to the
reason that the
pressure on the
abutments due to the
fill are considered to be
calculable only with high
degree of uncertainty.

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Permanent loads
Shrinkage and creep:
Only have to be taken
into consideration when
those effects are
important.

Differential settlement:
The onus is placed upon
the designer.

Transient loads
Wind load:
According to BS5400 not
necessary to consider wind
loading in combination with
temperature loading.
Wind loading does not have
to be applied to the
superstructure of a beam
and slab, or slab bridges
having a span < 20m and a
width > 10m.
Designer have to decide the
mean hourly wind speed
where the bridge to be
constructed.

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Transient loads
Temperature loads:
Exceptional loads:
2 aspects:
The restraint to the
overall bridge
movement due to
temperature range;
The effects of
temperature
differences through
the depth of bridge.

These include the loads

due to otherwise
unaccounted effects
such as earthquakes,
stream flows, impact
due to ship etc.

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Transient loads
Erection loads:
At SLS, required that
nothing should be done
during erection which
would:
cause damage to the
permanent structure; or
alter its responsive in
service from that
considered in design.

At ULS, the loads are

considered as either
temporary or
permanent.

Loads and factors

specified:
Nominal loads
where adequate
statistical distribution
are
available, nominal
loads are those
appropriate to a return
period of 120 years.

LEGAL LOADS, HIGHWAY

DESIGN LOADS & LOAD FACTOR
Design loads
nominal loads
multiplied by the
appropriate value of fL
and additional factor f3 in Design load = nominal load x fL x f3
certain
circumstances;

fL are given in Table 1

BS 5400;

f3 are given in Part 3, 4,

5 and 9;

fL = partial safety factor

f3 = additional factor

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS
Standard highway loading:
HA and HB loading (Cl. 6.1)

HA loading formula loading

representing normal traffic in
Malaysia (include impact)
HB loading abnormal
vehicles unit loading
(include impact)

Loads to be considered: the structure and its elements shall be

designed to resist the most severe effects of either:
1. Design HA loading; or
2. Design HB 45 units loading; or
3. Design HA loading combined with design HB 30 units
loading.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

Types of
HA Loading

HA loading is a formula loading

which is intended to represent
normal actual vehicle loading.
It consists of either a UDL plus a
KEL
or
A single wheel load

HA UDL
(Uniformly
distributed load)

HA KEL
(Knife edge load)

or
A single wheel
load

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HA-UDL
Loading

Nominal UDL (Cl. 6.2.1)

For a loaded length up

to 50 m, the HA-UDL
loading shall be derived
using the stated
equation.
And, after 50 m, the HAUDL is determined using
different formula.
L = loaded length (m)
W = the load per meter of notional lane (kN)

Loaded lengths 1600 m:

The HA UDL:

Expressed in kN per linear meter

of notional lane

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS
Load per linear meter of notional
lane (HA-UDL) up to 50 m

Load curve (HA-UDL) up to 50 m

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS
Load per linear meter of notional
lane (HA-UDL) between 50 m to
1600 m

Load curve (HA-UDL)

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS
HA Loading Loaded length
Loaded length
Single span
L
The loaded length
for the span
moment is the span
length. i.e.: L

The length of the base of the

positive or negative portion of
the IL for a particular effect at the
design point under
consideration.
Two span
continuous member
(equal span)
L
L
1. The loaded length for calculating
the span moment is L;
2. The loaded length for calculating
the support moment is 2L.

How about for four span continuous member with equal

span?

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS
What is influence
line (IL)?
What are the usage
of IL?
What is the
difference between
IL and BMD and
SFD?

How to construct an
IL?
HOMEWORK!!

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HA Loading
HA KEL
Cl. 6.2.2

The knife edge load per notional

lane shall be taken as 120 kN

Distribution
Cl. 6.2.3

UDL and KEL shall be taken to

occupy one notional lane, UD
over the full width of lane and
applied as specified in Cl. 6.4.1

Dispersal
Cl. 6.2.4

No allowance for the dispersal of

the UDL and KEL

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HA Loading
Single nominal wheel load
alternative to UDL and KEL
Cl. 6.2.5

A single 100 kN wheel with a

contact pressure of 1.1 N/mm2,
placed on the carriageway and
UD over a circular contact area
(of diameter 340 mm) or a square
(of side 300 mm).

Design of HA loading:
Load Combination
Combination 1
Combination 2
Combination 3

fL
ULS
1.50
1.25
1.25

SLS
1.20
1.00
1.00

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HB Loading

Nominal HB loading:

All public highway bridges:

The no. of units of type HB
loading

30 units when acting

together with HA

45 units when HB alone

Consists of a single vehicle with

4 axles.
1 axle = 4 wheels; therefore
there are 16 wheels in total,
Consider the axle arrangement
for 1 unit of nominal HB loading;
1 unit = 10 kN per axle;
Hence, 2.5 kN per wheel;
The overall length of the HB
vehicle 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 m
for inner axle spacing of 6, 11,
16, 21 or 26 m, respectively.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HB
Loading

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HB Loading
1 unit

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY LIVE

LOADS

HB Loading
45 unit

HIGHWAY BRIDGE PRIMARY

LIVE LOADS
Nominal HB wheel loads shall be
assumed to be UD over a circular
contact area, assuming effective
pressure of 1.1 N/mm2.

Contact area
Cl. 6.3.2

Alternatively, a square contact

area may be assumed, using the
same effective pressure
Design of HB loading:

Load Combination
Combination 1
Combination 2
Combination 3

fL
ULS
1.30
1.10
1.10

SLS
1.10
1.00
1.00

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Type HA Loading
HA-UDL determined for the
appropriate loaded length; and
HA-KEL loads shall be applied
to each notional lane in the
appropriate parts of the influence
line for the element or member
under consideration.
The lane loading are
interchangeable between the
notional lanes; and
A notional lane or lanes may be
left unloaded if this caused the
most severe effect on the
member or element under
consideration.

The KEL shall be applied at

one point only in the loaded
length of each notional lane.
Where the point under
consideration has a different
influence line for the loading
in each lane, the appropriate
loaded length for each lane
will vary and the lane loadings
shall be determined
individually.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
HA Lane factors
The HA UDL
and HA KEL
shall be
multiplied by
the
appropriate
factors
before being
applied to the
notional
lanes
indicated.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Type HA and HB combined

Types HA and HB
loading shall be
combined and
applied as follows:

a) Type HA loading shall be

applied to the notional lanes of
the carriageway in accordance
with 6.4.1, modified as given in b)
below.
b) Type HB loading shall occupy
any transverse position on the
carriageway, either wholly within
one notional lane or straddling
two or more notional lanes.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Type HA and HB combined
Where the HB vehicle lies wholly within the notional lane (e.g. Figure
13 (1)) or where the HB vehicle lies partially within a notional lane and
the remaining width of the lane, measured from the side of the HB
vehicle to the edge of the notional lane, is less than 2.5 m (e.g. Figure
13 (2)a)), type HB loading is assumed to displace part of the HA
loading in the lane or straddled lanes it occupies. No other live
loading shall be considered for 25 m in front of the leading axle to
25 m behind the rear axle of the HB vehicle. The remainder of the
loaded length of the lane or lanes thus occupied by the HB vehicle shall
be loaded with HA UDL only; HA KEL shall be omitted. The intensity
of the HA UDL in these lanes shall be appropriate to the loaded length
that includes the total length displaced by the type HB loading with the
front and rear 25 m clear spaces.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Type HA and HB combined
Where the HB vehicle lies partially within the notional
lane and the remaining width of the lane, measured from
the side of the HB vehicle to the far edge of the notional
lane, is greater or equal to 2.5 m (e.g. Figure 13 (2)b)),
the HA UDL loading in that lane shall remain but shall be
multiplied by an appropriate lane factor for a notional lane
width of 2.5 m irrespective of the actual lane width; the HA
KEL shall be omitted.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Type HA and HB combined

Only one HB vehicle shall be considered on any

one superstructure or on any substructure
supporting two or more superstructures. Figure 13
illustrates typical configurations of type HA loading in
combination with type HB loading.

APPLICATION OF HA & HB
LOADING
Highway loading on transverse cantilever slabs, slabs
supported on all four sides, slabs spanning transversely
and central reserves

Type HB loading shall be applied to the elements specified in

6.4.3.1 and 6.4.3.2 (BS5400: Part 2:2006).

6.4.3.1 Transverse cantilever slabs, slabs supported

on all four sides, slabs spanning transversely

These elements shall be so proportioned as to resist the effects of the

appropriate number of units of type HB loading occupying any transverse
position in the carriageway or placed in one notional lane in combination
with 30 units of type HB loading placed in one other notional lane. Proper
consideration shall be given to transverse joints of transverse cantilever
slabs and to the edges of these slabs because of the limitations of
distribution. This does not apply to members supporting these elements.

6.4.3.2 Central reserves

On dual carriageways the portion of the central reserve isolated from the
rest of the carriageway either by a raised kerb or by safety fences is not
required to be loaded with live load in considering the overall design of the
structure, but it shall be capable of supporting 30 units of HB loading.

Standard footway and cycle

track loading

The live load on highway bridges due to pedestrian traffic shall

be treated as uniformly distributed over footways or cycle
tracks.
For elements supporting footways or cycle tracks, the
intensity of pedestrian live load shall vary according to
loaded length and any expectation of exceptional crowds.
Reductions in pedestrian live load intensity may be made for
elements supporting highway traffic lanes as well as
footways or cycle tracks, and also where footway and cycle
track together has a width exceeding two metres.

FOOTWAY AND CYCLE TRACK

LOADING
Nominal pedestrian live load:
elements supporting
footways or cycle tracks
only.
For loaded length of less
than or equal to 36 m,
nominal UDL of pedestrian
LL is 5 kN/m2.
For loaded length more than
36 m, the UDL is k x 5 kN/m2.
k is given in Cl. 6.5.1.1.

Nominal pedestrian live load:

elements supporting
footways or cycle tracks and
a carriageway.
The pedestrian LL on
elements supporting
carriageway loading as well
as footway or cycle track,
loading should be taken as
80% from the previous one.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Clause 6.6
Accidental Loading
Clause 6.7
Loads due to vehicle
collision with parapet
Clause 6.8
Vehicle collision loads on
bridge supports and
superstructure over
highway

Clause 6.9
Centrifugal loads
Clause 6.10
Longitudinal loads
Clause 6.11
Accidental load due to
skidding

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Accidental loading:

The elements of the

structure supporting outer
verges, footways or cycle
tracks which are not
protected from vehicular
traffic by an effective
barrier, shall be designed to
sustain local effects of the
nominal accidental wheel
loading, or such other
loading as may be required
by the relevant authority.

Nominal accidental wheel

loading:
The accidental wheel
loading having the plan,
axle and wheel load
arrangement shown in
Figure 14 shall be selected
and located in the position
which produces the most
adverse effect on the
elements. Where the
application of any wheel or
wheels has a relieving effect,
it or they shall be ignored.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Nominal accidental wheel loading:

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Contact area:

Nominal accidental wheel

loads shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed
over a circular contact
area, assuming an effective
pressure of 1.1 N/mm2.
Alternatively, a square
contact area may be
assumed, using the same
effective pressure.

Dispersal:
Dispersal of accidental
wheels loads at a spread-todepth ratio of 1 horizontally to
2 vertically through asphalt
and similar surfacing may be
assumed, where it is
considered that this may take
place. Dispersal through
structural concrete slabs may
be taken at a spread-to-depth
ratio of 1 horizontally to 1
vertically down to the neutral
axis.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS

Live load combination:

Accidental wheel loading
need not be considered in
combinations 2 and 3. No
other primary live load is
required to be considered on
the bridge.

Design load:
For accidental wheel loading
fL shall be taken as follows:

Design of accidental loading:

Load Combination
Combination 1

fL
ULS
1.50

SLS
1.20

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets:

The local effects of vehicle

collision with parapets shall be
considered in the design of
elements of the structure
supporting parapets.
The global effects of vehicle
collision with high level of
containment parapets shall be
considered in the design of the
bridge superstructures,
bearings, substructures,
retaining walls and wing walls.

The global effects of vehicle

collision with other types of
parapets need not be
considered.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets:

In summary: the Code is not

concerned with the design of the
parapets, but only with the load
transmitted to the member
supporting the parapets.
The nominal loads is defined as
the load cause collapse of the
parapet or its connection to the
supporting member, which ever
is greater.

The additional primary loading

assumed to be acting adjacent
to the point of collision, consists
of any 4 wheels of 25 units of
the HB vehicle.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets for determining local effects:

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets for determining global effects:

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Vehicle collision loads on bridge supports and superstructures over
highways:

The Code recommends the

provision of protection of bridge
supports from possible vehicle
collision.
The nominal loads for highway
bridge supports to be
considered are the loads
transmitted by the guard rail,
normal and parallel to the
carriageway as stated in Table
15.

The normal and parallel loads

should not be considered to act
together.
For a foot or cycle track bridge,
the normal collision loads is a
single load of 50 kN applied in
any direction up to the height of
3.0 m above the carriageway.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Centrifugal loads:
This is a radial force applied
at the surface of the road of a
curved bridge.
The nominal load is given by:

r is the radius of the lane in

meter

Centrifugal loads shall be

applied in any two notional
lanes in each carriageway at
50 m centres.
If the carriageway consists of
one notional lane only
centrifugal loads shall be
applied at 50 m centres in
that lane.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Longitudinal load:
The longitudinal load is
resulting from traction or
braking of vehicles.
It shall be taken as the more
severe design load resulting
from Cl. 6.10.1, 6.10.2 and
6.10.5, applied at the road
surface and parallel to it in
one notional lane only.

Nominal load for HA loading:

8 kN/m of loaded length plus
250 kN, subject to a max. 750
kN, applied to an area one
notional lane wide multiplied
by the loaded length.
Nominal load for HB loading:
25% of total nominal HB load,
applied equally distributed
between the 8 wheels of the
2 axles of the vehicle, 1.8 m
apart.

HIGHWAY BRIDGE
SECONDARY LIVE LOADS
Accidental load due to
skidding
A single point load, 250 kN is
considered in one notional lane
only, acting in any direction on
and parallel to the surface of the
highway.

Loading for fatigue

investigations
Loading for fatigue
investigations is explained in
detailed in Part 10 of BS5400.

Dynamic loading on
highway bridges
The effects of vibration due to
live load are not normally
required to be considered.
However, special consideration
shall be given to dynamically
sensitive structures.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE
2 types of temperature loading
effects to consider:
1. Uniform temperature
change which results in an
axial expansion and
contraction in the deck;
2. Differential changes in
temperature between the
top surface of the deck and
at the different levels
throughout the depth of the
deck which cause the deck
distort.

Min. and max shade air

temperatures
Min. and max. shade air
temperature are used to
predict min. and max. design
temperature that the bridge
deck may experience during
its design life.
Presented in the code in the
form of isotherm maps.
Refer Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE
Min. and max effective bridge
temperatures

Range of effective bridge

temperatures

The min. and max. shade air

temperature are converted into
effective bridge temperatures,
Te,min and Te,max
To calculate how much the
bridge deck will expand and
contract, Te,min and Te,max will be
multiplied by coefficient of
thermal expansion and the deck
length.
Refer Table 10 and Table 11.

A datum temperature, To is
used to represent the
effective bridge temperature
at the specific stage of
construction.
The deck will expand from To
to Te,max and contract from To
to Te,min .
Coefficient of thermal expansion
12 x 10-6/o C

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE
Temperature difference
Effects of temperature
differences within the
superstructure shall be
derived from the data given in
Fig. 9.
The profile of the temperature
gradient varies for different
types of deck construction;

Design value
Only for Combination 3 and 5
The value of as stated in Clause 5.4.8

Two temperature profiles for

each deck type:
1. Positive/ heating
temperature differences;
- The top surface of the
deck is hotter than the
core of the deck
2. Reverse/ cooling
temperature difference.
- The top surface of the
deck is cooler than the
core of the deck

THERMAL LOAD
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
Expansion and contraction in
the deck can either be
accommodated by:
providing joints and sliding
bearings (a free moving
deck); or
restraining the movement
and designing the
structure to resist the
forces developed (a
restrained deck).

To is used to either:
Case: a free moving deck
Calibrate the gap for the
expansion joint and to set
the sliding bearing positions
when this units are installed.
Case: a restrained deck
Determine the magnitude of
movement that the
supporting structure has to
accommodate after it has
been made integral with the
deck.

THERMAL LOAD
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
For free moving decks, the To
can be estimated at design
stage.
To is estimated
to establish the range of
movement in the deck;
readjusted during
construction for the actual
temperature when the
joints and bearings are
installed.

Three possibilities for the

effective bridge temperatures
that could occur on site when
the joints and bearings are
installed:
When To is at mid range
When To is above mid
range
When To is below mid range
(www.bridgedesign.org.uk)

A horizontal force will be

generated at the sliding
bearing.

THERMAL LOAD
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
For durability reason,
preferably the expansion
joints and bearings not
provided.
And, design the deck as
acting integral with the
supporting structure.
BD 57/01 clause 2.3:
Bridges with deck lengths not
exceeding 60 m and skews
not exceeding 300 shall be
designed as integral bridges.

This construction will restrain

the deck expansion and
contraction movement.
Hence, the expansion and
contraction of the deck will
apply loads to the abutment.
Secondary bending effects
can be produced in the deck
and abutments.
The problem is deciding To.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
Temperature difference the
variations of temperature at
different level through out the
depth of the deck.
The profile of the temperature
gradient varied according to
types of deck construction
(Fig. 9).
1. Steel deck on steel
girders;
2. Steel deck on steel truss
or plate girders;
3. Concrete deck on steel
box, truss or plate girders;
4. Concrete slab or concrete
deck on concrete beams
or box girders

Each deck type has two

temperature profiles:
1. Top surface of the deck
is hotter than the core of
the deck
Positive (heating)
temperature difference
2. Top surface of the deck
is cooler than the core of
the deck
Reverse (cooling)
temperature difference

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

Let T1, T2 and T3 be the nonlinear temperature

distribution from the core
temperature.
Values for these
temperatures are obtained
from tables in the codes (Fig.
9).

Let be the coefficient of

thermal expansion and E be
Young's Modulus for the deck
material.
The strain at each depth
where the temperature
changes, and the stress can
be calculated.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

Let A be the cross-sectional

area of the deck member,
then when the axial restraint
FT (force) is removed a stress
of FT/A is released from the
restrained stresses.

The remaining restrained

(locked in) stresses are
shown in the diagram.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

Let Z be the section modulus

(I/y) of the deck member,
then when the moment
restraint MT is removed the
deck flexes and a stress of
MT/Z is released from the
restrained stresses.
The remaining restrained
(locked in) stresses are
shown in the diagram.

These final locked in stresses

are often referred to as selfequilibrating stresses and
need to be added to the
stresses resulting from
permanent and traffic loading
when combinations including
temperature effects are
considered.

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
How to calculate FT and MT

The restrained stress

diagram is divided into
sufficient sections, of depth
h1, h2 and h3.
Let the width of each section
be B.
Let h1, h2 etc., be the depth of
each section.

the restraining force FT

Then

is the average restrained

stress multiplied by the area
of the section:

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
How to calculate FT and MT

The restraining moment MT is

found by summing the force
on each section multiplied by
the distance of its centroid to
the neutral axis.
It is convenient to divide the
restrained stress diagram into
rectangles and triangles as
the position of the centroid of
these shapes is known.

Let
z be the distance from the
neutral axis to the centroid of
the force on each section
then:
For a solid rectangular deck
the depth to the neutral axis

THERMAL LOAD
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
How to calculate FT and MT