Dr. Ir.

Dedy Kristanto, MT

Petroleum Engineering Department

UPN Veteran Yogyakarta

MISCIBLE GAS FLOODING

Miscible (Solvents) Floods

Type of Miscible (Solvents) Floods:
- Hydrocarbon gases (CH4, C2H6)
- Nitrogen (N2)
- Natural gas mixtures
- Light hydrocarbon liquids
- Carbon dioxide (CO2)

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Miscible (Solvents) Floods

Nitrogen becomes an efficient miscible displacement
only for light oils, temperatures greater than 240 0F (115
0C) and pressures greater than 5,000 psig, where its
density is high enough to extract light-hydrocarbons
from the oil.
Flue-gas works well at lower pressure and temperature,
since it contains around 13% carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide, the minimum pressure is 1,070 psig at
88 0F (31 0C), i.e., when CO2 becomes supercritical and
its gas and liquid are no longer separate phases.
All of these gases become miscible only when their
density is high, generally greater than 0.5 gr/cc. Thus,
they work best at high pressure.
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Comparison of Solvents
Selecting an appropriate solvent for a given
reservoir is generally based on:
- Availability and relative cost
- Physical properties and phase behavior data
- Miscibility conditions
- Reservoir characteristics

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Comparison of Solvents
At 93C and 3000 psia
Solvent

Density, kg/m3

FVF, RCF/SCF

Viscosity, Cp

CO2

525

0.0035

0.042

Air

186

0.0064

0.027

Nitrogen

178

0.0064

0.025

Methane

117

0.0056

0.018

Natural gas

173

0.0051

0.02

CO2 has favorable properties and lower MMP

LNG, LPG and condensate liquids are excellent solvents but are
more expensive
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Comparison of Solvents
Light component

CO2

CH4
Heavy
component

N2

Intermediate
component
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Comparison of Solvents
Among various gases, Carbon dioxide is
preferred, due to:
- Higher viscosity
- Low formation volume factor
- High density
- Low miscibility pressures with reservoir oils
- Easy to handling
- Relatively low cost
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Gas Injection Options

Reinjection of Reservoir Gas:
The first option to consider in a low permeability
reservoir is reinjection of reservoir gas. This can
only occur in a relatively unproduced, newer
reservoir that originally was nearly saturated with
gas. The gas will have already been produced from
older reservoirs.
If this option is possible, the reservoir pressure is
controlled so as to optimize gas production, gas
recycle, and oil production.

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Gas Injection Options

Nitrogen Injection:
If reservoir gas is not available, injecting either
nitrogen or air to increase oil recovery is common.
Nitrogen, extracted from air using membranes or
pressure swing adsorption, is relatively inert because
it contains less than 4 percent oxygen.
It is best used in shallower reservoirs to enhance
production by increasing reservoir pressure.
Produced nitrogen can be recompressed and recycled
so that very little new gas is needed and the
production can continue for several decades.
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Gas Injection Options

Air Injection:
Air is used in deeper reservoirs, temperature (> 150
F) where the air spontaneously reacts with the oil
to form flue gas. The CO2 in the flue gas dissolves
in the oil. In addition, water and light oil evaporate
from the combustion zone.
This means that three mechanisms (pressure
maintenance, swelling and waterflooding by
condensed steam) combine to increase oil
recovery.

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Gas Injection Options

CO2 Sequestration:
When a CO2 pipeline is not nearby but CO2 is
available from plants in a nearly pure form and is
not being sold for another purpose, it can be
injected into light-oil reservoirs where the CO 2 and
oil could become miscible.
In the few instances where these conditions exist,
carbon dioxide is the best choice for recovering oil
for decades from a low-permeability, deeper
reservoir where gas will not override the reservoir
fluids.

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Gas Injection versus Waterflood

The first decision that must be reached is whether to
inject a gas or to either start or continue a waterflood.
The facts are that waterflood (without surfactant) leave
more oil in the reservoir than gas floods, but
waterflood can also recover oil faster than gas if the
permeability of the reservoir is high.
Usually, if the permeability of the reservoir is above 50
md, a waterflood will work well, whereas if the
permeability is below 25 md, gas will recover oil faster
than water because more gas can be injected.
In addition, if a waterflood has not been successful
because of poor sweep, a gas flood should be
profitable.
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Condition for Miscibility

In miscible displacement, the design entails
determining the gas composition which could
develop miscibility at a given pressure is known
as enrichment requirement
Miscibility condition is expressed as minimum
content of intermediate components in the solvent
If the solvent composition is fixed, the miscibility
condition is expressed as the lowest pressure at
which the solvent could develop miscibility with
the reservoir oil. This is known as the Minimum
Miscibility Pressure (MMP)
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Ternary Equilibrium Diagrams

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Comparison of Miscibility Types

First contact
Preferred but requires
light oil, rich solvents
and high pressures
Condensing gas drive
Requires solvents that
are enriched with
intermediate
components
Vaporizing gas drive
Suitable for reservoir
oils that are rich in
intermediate
components
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Dr. Ir. Dedy Kristanto, MT

Petroleum Engineering Department

UPN Veteran Yogyakarta

MISCIBLE GAS FLOODING:

CO2 FLOODING

CO2 Miscible Flood

Minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) is a key
parameter for the design and operations of
successful CO2 miscible flood project to
enhance oil recovery
Operating CO2 flood project below the
minimum miscibility pressure results in
immiscible displacement and consequently low
oil recovery
Operating CO2 flood project above the
minimum miscibility pressure (miscible
displacement) increases additional oil recovery
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Physical Properties of CO2

Molecular Weight 44
Critical Pressure 1071 Psia
Critical Temperature 87.8 Deg F
Soluble in Oil
Soluble in Water
Miscible with oil at lower minimum miscibility
pressure (MMP)

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Why CO2 Flooding?

Some of the advantages of CO2 over Hydrocarbon Solvent are:
Cheaper solvent than liquid hydrocarbon, and safer to handle and
pressurize than hydrocarbon gases
2-3 times more viscous
3-4 times more dense (dissolving power)
Miscible at lower pressures
Miscible with more oils
Immiscible swelling of oil benefit
Immiscible oil viscosity reduction
Powerful vaporizer of hydrocarbons
Recovers oil beyond low tension effects because of extraction of
intermediate hydrocarbon from the non-mobile oil
Can lower minimum miscibility pressure as the flood progresses
Easier miscibility than N2, flue gas, C1

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Mechanisms of CO2 Flooding

Swelling crude oils (CO2 is very soluble in
high-gravity oils)
Lowering oil viscosity
Lowering the interfacial tension between the
oil and CO2 phases in the near-miscible
regions
Generating miscibility between the oil and CO2
phases when pressure is above minimum
miscibility pressure (MMP)
Extraction of hydrocarbon components
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Requirements for Carbon Dioxide

Miscible Flooding
Minimum miscibility pressure must be
determined for the crude oils at that field
Must be possible to re-pressure reservoir to
reach MMP during the displacement process
Carbon dioxide must be available at a price
that will make the process economic

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Sources of CO2
Natural CO2 deposits
By-product from amonia plants, other chemical plants, and
oil field acid gas separation facilities
By-product from coal gasification and SNG (synthetic natural
gas) plants
Flue gas from cement plants
CO2 Sequestration:
When a CO2 pipeline is not nearby but CO 2 is available from
plants in a nearly pure form, it can be injected into light-oil
reservoirs where the CO2 and oil could become miscible.
In the few instances where these conditions exist, carbon
dioxide is the best choice for recovering oil for decades from
a low-permeability, deeper reservoir where gas will not
override the reservoir fluids.
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Sources of CO2

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CO2 Sources Facilities

Photograph of Reprocessing Plant for CO2 Stripping showing the

complete expanse of the Facility. The columns in the middle are part
of the long-closed potassium plant that was originally used.

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CO2 Sources Facilities

Photograph of Reprocessing Plant for CO2 Stripping, where amine

and membrane facilities are located on the right of the image

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Cost and Feasibility of CO2

The nature of CO2 sources,
Its location relative to oil field,
The method use to transport CO2
from the sources to oil field.

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CO2 EOR Technologies

CO2 Flood Types
- Miscible
Develops
Swells

miscibility

oil

Reduces

viscosity

- Immiscible
Two

phase

Some

swelling and viscosity effects

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CO2 EOR Technologies

Injection Methods
- Continuous injection
- Water Alternating Gas (WAG)

Pressures reservoir to miscible level

Prevents early CO2 breakthrough

Gravity override

Can add foam or other mobility control agents

- Huff and Puff (inject, soak, and produce back from

1 well)

May sequester some CO2, but most comes back

Soaking may accelerate full field flood response

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Immiscible CO2 Flooding Process

In this process, CO2 typically
injected at slows rates at
the crest of reservoir
aiming at filling the pore
volume of the reservoir
rock.
The injected gas creates an
artificial gas cap, pushing
oil simultaneously
downwards and towards
the rim of the reservoir
where the producing wells
are located.
Injected CO2 causes oil to
swell, decreases oil density
and improves oil mobility.
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Comparison Oil Production between

Immiscible and Miscible CO2 Flooding

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CO2 Flooding Process Diagram

Continuous Carbon Dioxide Flooding

CO2

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CO2 Flooding Process Diagram

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Miscible CO2 Slug

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Optimum of CO2 Slug Size

100

Oil Recovery (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Slug Size = 32% PV

10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

CO2 Slug Size (% PV)

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Case: Weyburn Fields

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Case: Weyburn Fields

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Case: Weyburn Fields

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Wasson Field, US

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Water-Alternating-Gas Processes
Known as WAG miscible floods
Volumetric sweep efficiency with solvents is usually low
due to unfavorable mobility ratio
Water is injected (alternating with solvent) to improve the
displacement mobility ratio
Typical water-gas ratio is about 1:1
Water may shield the solvent from contacting the
reservoir oil

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Water Shielding Effect in

Water-Alternating-Gas Processes
Shielding reduces contact between solvent and oil, hence
resulting in lower displacement efficiency
Shielding effect is lower in oil-wet reservoirs and for low rate
100
Oil-wet

Displacement
Efficiency, %

Water-wet
Low rate
Water-wet

0
100

% Water in WAG

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WAG Injection Procedure

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Slug CO2 and WAG Injection

Surface Facilities

A typical injection well is shown in the photograph above

where the wellhead is on the left of the image and the two
pipes on the right are for the water and the CO2 supply lines.

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Slug CO2 and WAG Injection

Surface Facilities

A group of producer wellheads are linked together to a larger field preprocessing unit as shown in the photograph. Here the collecting manifold
from the producer wells is observed to the left in the image, while the
three pressure tanks coarsely separate the water, oil, and gas with CO2,
before pumping to a centralized processing plant.

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CO2 Screening Methodology

Empirical reservoir characteristics.
Geological models.
Preliminary reservoir simulation studies.
PVT tests, core analysis and core floods.
Advanced reservoir simulation studies (ECLIPSE,
GEM, CMG, VIP)

Preliminary economic analysis.

Field pilot.
Large scale simulation and project economics.
Full scale development.
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Favorable Reservoir Characteristics

for Empirical Screening

Reservoirs with good waterflood response are best

candidate for CO2. 20% OOIP< Recovery Factor <50%

OOIP.

Depth >2500 ft to reach MMP.

Oil Gravity >25 Degrees API.
Oil Viscosity <10 cp.
Porosity >12%.
Permeability >10 md.
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Unfavorable Reservoir Characteristics

for Empirical Screening

High concentrations of vertical fractures.

Very high, or very low, permeability.
(Vertical segregation or fracture channeling)

Thick reservoirs with no layered horizontal

permeability barriers.

Reservoirs with poor connectivity.

Well spacing >80 acres.
Poor material balance during waterflood. (High

water loss out of zone, water influx or high water cut

during primary production)
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Quick Rules of Thumb

Recovery factor using miscible CO

is 8% -11%
OOIP. Immiscible CO2 50% of miscible.
2

MMP equals initial bubble point pressure.

CO requirement is 7-8 Mcf/bo plus 3-5 Mcf/bo
2

recycle.

Water injection required to fill gas voidage and

increase reservoir pressure to original BHP.

WAG is alternative but 10 Mcf/bo still required.

Top down CO injection alternative is effective
2

but requires more capital investment for higher

CO2 volume.
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Factors Important for a Profitable

CO2 Miscible Flooding
To be an effective solvent, CO2 must flow through the
reservoir above its minimum miscibility pressure (MMP).
This means that the reservoir generally should be
greater than 2,500 ft deep.
CO2 is most effective with light crude's, those with oil
gravities greater than 25 API.
Stratification, fracturing and adjacent loss zones
(adjacent gas caps) can cause loss of CO2 and reduced
oil recovery.
The field should be in an area with an existing
infrastructure of CO2 source fields and has distribution
pipelines to supply and transportation. New pipelines
can be constructed wherever economically feasible.
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Factors Important for a Profitable

CO2 Miscible Flooding
Because CO2 flows through the reservoir more easily
than oil, it also does best in reservoirs with low
heterogeneity. If some layers of the reservoir are far
more porous than others, CO2 will flow there
preferentially, rather than maintaining a uniform front
and high displacement and/or sweep efficiency.

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Reservoir Characteristics of 29
Successful Carbonate CO2 Floods
Average

Porosity
Permeability
Depth
API
BHT
Viscosity

North Dakota Madison

11% (7%-13.5%)
9 Md (1.5-62)

10.9%
10.2 Md

5,281 feet (4500-8000)

7,500 feet

33 degrees (28-41)

38.7 degrees

108 degrees F (86-134)

201 degrees F

1.52 cp (0.5 2.6)

1.54 cp

So at start of CO2 flood = 55% (35%-89%)

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Reservoir Parameters of
Carbonate CO2 Floods
Well Spacing for 38 Successful CO2 Floods:
1 Field at 130 acres
2 Fields at 75 acres
2 Fields at 50 acres
32 Fields < 40 acres
38 Well average was 27.6 acres

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CO2 Potential Oil Reserve

Classification
Probable, Possible, Unfavorable
Probable (>2MMbo and <2MMbo): Highest
probability of success based upon empirical
analysis and comparison to other successful
projects.
Possible (>2MMbo and <2MMbo): Feasible but
have less favorable reservoir characteristics. May
have lower oil recovery.
Unfavorable: Significant reservoir problems.
Projects with greater than 2 MMbo recoverable
best candidates.
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Can CO2 floods be Used by Smaller

Operators?
Experience has helped to make CO2 floods practical for
independent operators. Changes include:
Less expensive equipment. Experience shows that the
same equipment used for waterflooding can generally
be used for CO2 flooding.
Lower CO2 costs and cheaper transportation. The cost
for delivered CO2 costs has dropped approximately
40% since the 1980s.
Better screening and select the best CO2 flood
candidates to reduce risks.
Better flood design to prevent early breakthrough and
other reservoir problems.
Creative financing options to reduce the risk, speed
payout and improve the return on investment.
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