Chapter 1

Concepts of
Thermodynamics and
Properties of Gases
Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Copyright2013DorlingKindersley(India)Pvt.Ltd.
Chapter 1
Thermodynamics is a branch of science and engineering that

deals with interaction of energy mainly in the forms of heat
and work.
There are different forms of energy:
all the energy cannot be used as a work.
the convertibility of energy into work depends on its

availability.
Thermodynamics is studied in two forms:
Classical
Statistical

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Introduction
Statistical thermodynamics is concerned with the

microstructure of the matter and addresses
behaviour of individual molecules of the matter.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Classical thermodynamics is concerned with the

macrostructure of matter and addresses the major
characteristics of large aggregations of molecules and
not the behaviour of individual molecules.
Thermodynamics: It is the eld of thermal engineering

that studies the properties of systems that have a
temperature and involve the laws that
o
govern the conversion of energy from one form to
another.
o
the direction in which heat will ow.
o
the availability of energy to do work.
System: System is the xed quantity of matter and/or the
region that can be separated from everything else by a
well-dened boundary/surface.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Important Terminologies
State: At any instant of time, the condition of a system is

called state. The state at a given instant of time is dened
by the properties of the system such as pressure, volume,
temperature, etc.
Property: It is any quantity whose numerical value depends
on the state but not on the history of the system. There
are two types of properties: extensive and intensive.
o
Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of
the system. Volume, mass, energy and entropy are the
examples of extensive properties.
o
Intensive properties are independent of the size or
extent of the system. Pressure and temperature are the
examples of intensive properties.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Important Terminologies (Cont)
Change in State
o Thermodynamic
system
undergoes changes due to
ow of mass and energy.
The mode in which the
changes in the state of a
system takes place is known
as process such as isobaric
(constant pressure) process,
isochoric (constant volume)
process,
isothermal
(constant
temperature)
process, adiabatic (constant
entropy) process, etc.
o The path is loci of series of state changes from initial state
to nal state during a process.

by Dr Pravin Kumar

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Process: Two states are identical if, and only if, the
properties of the two states are same. When any property
of a system changes in value there is a change in state and
the system is said to undergo a process.
Cycle: When a system from a given initial state goes into a
sequence of processes and nally returns to its initial state,
it is said to have undergone a cycle.
Phase: Phase refers to a quantity of matter that is
homogeneous throughout in its chemical composition and
physical structure.
o
A system can contain one or more phases.
o
A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable
in chemical composition.
o
A pure substance can exist in more than one phase,
but its chemical composition must be the same in
each phase.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Equilibrium: In thermodynamics, the concept of equilibrium

includes not only a balance of forces but also a balance of other
inuencing factors, such as thermal equilibrium, pressure
equilibrium, phase equilibrium, etc.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics is law of thermal equilibrium,
which states that if a system A is in thermal equilibrium with
systems B and C, then systems B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium as well.
Quasi-static Process: When a process proceeds in such a way
that the system remains innitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasi-static process.
o A quasi-static process can be understood as sufficiently
slow process that allows the system to adjust internally so
that properties in one part of the system do not change
faster than those at other parts.
C = K 273.15
R = 1.8K
F = R 459.67
F = 1.8C + 32
Internal Energy: The Internal Energy (U) of a system is

the total energy content of the system.
o It is the sum of the kinetic, potential, chemical,
electrical, and all other forms of energy possessed by
the atoms and molecules of the system.
o The Internal Energy (U) is path independent and
depends only on temperature for an ideal gas.
by Dr Pravin Kumar
Temperature: Temperature is a property of a substance by

which it can be differentiated from other substance in terms
of degree of hot or cold.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Work: Work in thermodynamics may be dened as any

quantity of energy that ows across the boundary between
the system and surroundings which can be used to change
the height of a mass in the surroundings.
Heat: Heat is dened as the quantity of energy that ows
across the boundary between the system and surroundings
because of a temperature difference between system and
surroundings. The characteristics of heat are as follows:
o
Heat is transitory and appears during a change in state
of the system and surroundings. It is not a point
function.
o
The net effect of heat is to change the internal energy
of the system and surroundings in accordance to rst
law.
o
If heat is transferred to the system, it is positive and if
it is transferred from the system it is negative.
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (CP): The rate of

change of enthalpy with respect to absolute temperature
when pressure is constant is known as specic heat at
constant pressure (Cp).

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Enthalpy: Enthalpy, h, of a substance is dened as h = u +

PV. It is intensive properties of a substance and measured
in terms of kJ/kg.
Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cv): The rate of
change of internal energy with respect to absolute
temperature at constant volume is known as specic heat
at constant volume (Cv).
First Law of Thermodynamics: The rst law of

thermodynamics is equivalent to law of conservation of
energy. It deals with the transformation of heat energy into
work and vice versa.
o When a small amount of work (dw) is supplied to a
closed system undergoing a cycle, the work supplied will
be equal to the heat transfer or heat produced (dQ) in
the system.
o If Q amount of heat is given to a system undergoing a

change of state and W is work done by the system and
transferred during the process, the net energy (Q W)
will be stored in the system named as internal energy or
simply energy of the system (U).
Q W = U
by Dr Pravin Kumar
First Law of Thermodynamics

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Sign Convention: The convention is adopted that Q

indicates the heat added to the system and W the work
done by it. Thus,
o
dQ > 0, heat added to system or system absorbs
heat.
o
dQ < 0, heat removed from system or system rejects
heat.
o
dW > 0, work is done by system.
o
dW < 0, work is done on the system.
o
U > 0, internal energy of system increases.
o
U < 0, internal energy of system decreases.
Constant Volume Process
Constant Pressure Process
Constant Temperature Process

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Non-flow Processes
Adiabatic Process
Polytropic Process

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Steady Flow Process: In a steady ow process,

thermodynamic properties at any section remain constant
with respect to time; it can vary only with respect to space.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Application of First Law of Thermodynamics in

Steady Flow Process and Variable Flow Process
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics does not tell about the
following:
o How much of the given quantity of heat is changed into
work?
o In which direction is changing take place (heat to work
or work to heat)?
o Under which condition the changing will take place?
by Dr Pravin Kumar
Variable Flow Process: In some ow process, mass ow

rate is not steady but varies with respect to time. In such a
case, the difference in energy ow is stored in system as
Ev.
KelvinPlanck
Statement:
It
is
impossible for any system to operate in a
thermodynamic cycle and deliver a net
amount of energy by work to its
surroundings while receiving energy by
heat transfer from a single thermal
reservoir.
Clausius Statement: It is impossible to
construct a device that operates in a
cycle and produces no effect other than
the transfer of heat from a lower
temperature body to higher temperature
body.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

by Dr Pravin Kumar
The Carnot Cycle

12 Reversible Isothermal
Expansion
23 Reversible Adiabatic
Expansion
34 Reversible Isothermal
Compression
41 Reversible Adiabatic
Compression
or
Entropy: Dening entropy in an exact word or line is
impossible. It can be viewed as a measure of molecular
disorder or molecular randomness. As a system becomes
more disordered, the positions of the molecules become
less predictable and the entropy increases. Thus, the
entropy of a substance is lowest in the solid phase and
highest in the gas phase.
SGEN > 0 for an irreversible (real) process
SGEN = 0 for a reversible (ideal) process
SGEN < 0 for an impossible process

by Dr Pravin Kumar
The Clausius Inequality
Third law of thermodynamics is law of entropy. It is a

statement about the ability to create an absolute
temperature scale, for which absolute zero is the point at
which the internal energy of a solid is zero. Third law of
thermodynamics states that it is impossible to reduce any
system to absolute zero in a nite series of operations.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Boyles law is stated as volume and pressure of a sample of

gas are inversely proportional to each other at constant
temperature.
Charles law can be stated as volume of a sample of gas is

directly proportional to the absolute temperature when
pressure remains constant.
GayLussacs law states that the pressure of a sample of

gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
when volume remains constant.

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Gas Laws
Combined Gas Law
Gas Constant

by Dr Pravin Kumar

by Dr Pravin Kumar
Thank You.

Chapter 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Concepts of

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Thermodynamics is a branch of science and engineering that

all the energy cannot be used as a work.

the convertibility of energy into work depends on its

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Statistical thermodynamics is concerned with the

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Classical thermodynamics is concerned with the

Thermodynamics: It is the eld of thermal engineering

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

State: At any instant of time, the condition of a system is

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Important Terminologies (Cont)

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Equilibrium: In thermodynamics, the concept of equilibrium

Internal Energy: The Internal Energy (U) of a system is

Temperature: Temperature is a property of a substance by

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Work: Work in thermodynamics may be dened as any

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (CP): The rate of

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Enthalpy: Enthalpy, h, of a substance is dened as h = u +

First Law of Thermodynamics: The rst law of

o If Q amount of heat is given to a system undergoing a

First Law of Thermodynamics

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Sign Convention: The convention is adopted that Q

Constant Volume Process

Constant Pressure Process

Constant Temperature Process

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Steady Flow Process: In a steady ow process,

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Application of First Law of Thermodynamics in

Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

Variable Flow Process: In some ow process, mass ow

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

The Carnot Cycle

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

The Clausius Inequality

Third law of thermodynamics is law of entropy. It is a

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Boyles law is stated as volume and pressure of a sample of

Charles law can be stated as volume of a sample of gas is

GayLussacs law states that the pressure of a sample of

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Combined Gas Law

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Basic Mechanical Engineering, First Edition

Вам также может понравиться