Prolog (Programming In: Logic)

Aashik Azim
10/19/16
PROLOG
(PROGRAMMING IN
LOGIC)
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
INTRODUCTION TO PROLOG
10/19/16
Exercises Teaching Material
Prolog Now! https://

sites.google.com/site/prologsite/home
SWI
Prolog interpreter http://www.swi-prolog.org/
Aashik Azim
Learn
Book:
The Art of Prolog by Leon Sterling and Ehud

Shapiro.
SWI PROLOG
10/19/16
Sociaal-Wetenschappelijke Informatica("Social
Science Informatics")
Freely available Prolog interpreter
Works with
Windows,
Mac
OS
Aashik Azim
Linux,
or
There are many more Prolog interpreters
LECTURE 1
10/19/16
Theory
to Prolog
Facts, Rules and Queries
Prolog Syntax
Aashik Azim
Introduction
AIM OF THIS LECTURE
Facts
Aashik Azim
some simple examples of Prolog

programs
Discuss the three basic constructs in
Prolog:
10/19/16
Give
Rules
Queries
Introduce
the
other concepts, such as
role of logic
unification with the help of variables
Begin
the systematic study of Prolog by

defining terms, atoms, and variables
PROLOG
10/19/16
"Programming with Logic"

Declarative
Very different from other (procedural)
programming languages
Good for knowledge-rich tasks
Aashik Azim
BASIC IDEA OF PROLOG

10/19/16
Describe the situation of interest

Ask a question
Prolog logically deduces new facts about the
situation we described
Prolog gives us its deductions back as answers
Aashik Azim
CONSEQUENCES
Think declaratively, not procedurally
Requires
a different mindset
High-level language
Not
as efficient as, say, C

Good for rapid prototyping
Useful in many AI applications
Aashik Azim
Challenging
10/19/16
LOGIC PROGRAMS
1.
2.
3.
Aashik Azim
logic program is a set of axioms, or

rules, defining relations between objects.
There are 3 basic constructs which define
logic programming.
10/19/16
Facts
Queries
Rules
9
FACTS
Aashik Azim
Predicate: Another name for a relation is a

predicate.
Atoms: Names of individuals are known as atoms.
Example: abraham and isaac.
Program: A finite set of facts constitutes a program.
10/19/16
The simplest kind of statement is called a fact.

Relation holds between objects Facts
Example: father(abraham, isaac).
This fact says that Abraham is the father of Isaac,
or that the relation father holds between the
individuals named abraham and isaac.
10
QUERIES
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
Queries are a means of retrieving information

from a logic program.
Example: father(abraham, isaac)?
Given the facts of previous slide, the answer to
this query is true/yes.
11
ATOMS
Examples: abraham, big_kahuna_burger,

hamSandwich etc.
Aashik Azim
sequence of characters of upper-case

letters, lower-case letters, digits, or
underscore, starting with a lowercase
letter.
10/19/16
An
arbitrary sequence of characters

enclosed in single quotes
Examples:
'Vincent', 'Suarezs bite', '@$%'
sequence of special characters

Examples:
: ,
:-
12
NUMBERS
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
0-9
Integers: 12, -34, 22342
Floats: 34573.3234
13
VARIABLES
Aashik Azim
A sequence of characters of upper-case letters,

lower-case letters, digits, or underscore, starting
with either an uppercase letter or an
underscore.
10/19/16
Examples:
X, Y, Variable, Vincent, _tag etc.
14
THE LOGICAL VARIABLE,

SUBSTITUTIONS, AND INSTANCES
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
Suppose we want to know of whom abraham is

the father.
father(abraham, lot)?
father(abraham, milcah)?
,...,
father (abraham, isaac)? until an answer yes is
given.
Better way to use varialbe logically
father (abraham, X)?
X=isaac.
15
TERMS
Aashik Azim
Compound Terms: (functor)

o A functor is characterized by its name, which is
an atom, and its arity, or number of arguments.
o Example: f(t1,t2,...,tn)
o Atom f
o Arity n
o ti are arguments.
10/19/16
Variables. Example: X, Y, etc.

Constants Example: abraham, isaac, etc.
16
GROUND VS. NONGROUND
Aashik Azim
queries, goals or terms with variable is a ground.

Example: bar(X) is nonground.
10/19/16
queries, goals or terms without variable is

ground.
Example: foo(a, b) is ground.
17
PROLOG AND LOGIC
Conjunction
Disjunction
:,
;
Aashik Azim
Implication
10/19/16
Clearly Prolog has something to do with logic

Operators
Use of modus ponens

Negation
18
RULES
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
Rules are statements of the form:

A :- B1,B2,...,Bn. where n >= 0.
Note that a fact is just a special case of a rule
when n = 0. Facts are also called unit clauses.
Example: A rule expressing the son relationship
is
son(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), male(X).
Similarly one can define a rule for the daughter
relationship:
daughter(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), female(X).
19
KNOWLEDGE BASE
Aashik Azim
A collection of facts and rules is called a

knowledge base (KB) (or a database) and Prolog
programming is all about writing knowledge
bases.
10/19/16
20
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
21
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
22
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
?- woman(mia).
yes
yes
?-
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
23
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
?- woman(mia).
yes
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
no
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
24
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- tattoed(jody).
25
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- tattoed(jody).
no
?26
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?27
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- party.
28
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- party.
yes
?29
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- rockConcert.
30
KNOWLEDGE BASE 1
Aashik Azim
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
party.
10/19/16
woman(mia).
?- rockConcert.
no
?31
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
32
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
fact
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
33
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
fact
fact
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
34
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
fact
fact
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
rule
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
35
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
fact
fact
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
rule
rule
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
36
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
fact
fact
rule
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
rule
rule
37
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
head
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
body
38
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
?-
39
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
yes
?40
KNOWLEDGE BASE 2
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
yes
41
CLAUSES
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

two facts, and three rules.
The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.
42
PREDICATES
Aashik Azim
listens2music(mia).
10/19/16
happy(yolanda).
There are three predicates

in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
43
KNOWLEDGE BASE 3
Aashik Azim
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
10/19/16
happy(vincent).
44
EXPRESSING CONJUNCTION
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
The comma ," expresses conjunction in Prolog
45
KNOWLEDGE BASE 3
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
happy(vincent).
?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
no
?-
46
KNOWLEDGE BASE 3
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
happy(vincent).
?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
yes
?-
47
EXPRESSING DISJUNCTION
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
happy(vincent).
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
48
KNOWLEDGE BASE 4
Aashik Azim
loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
49
PROLOG VARIABLES
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- woman(X).
50
VARIABLE INSTANTIATION
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- woman(X).
X=mia
51
ASKING ALTERNATIVES
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
52
ASKING ALTERNATIVES
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody
53
ASKING ALTERNATIVES
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
54
ASKING ALTERNATIVES
?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda;
no
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
55
KNOWLEDGE BASE 4
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
56
KNOWLEDGE BASE 4
?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
X=mia
yes
?-
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
57
KNOWLEDGE BASE 4
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
58
KNOWLEDGE BASE 4
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
no
?59
KNOWLEDGE BASE 5
Aashik Azim
loves(marsellus,mia).
10/19/16
loves(vincent,mia).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).
60
KNOWLEDGE BASE 5
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
loves(vincent,mia).
?- jealous(marsellus,W).
61
KNOWLEDGE BASE 5
Aashik Azim
10/19/16
loves(vincent,mia).
?- jealous(marsellus,W).
W=vincent
?62
PROLOG SYNTAX
10/19/16
Sim ple Term s
Constants
Atom s
Com plex Term s
Aashik Azim
Term s
Variables
N um bers
63
ARITY
Examples:
Aashik Azim
The number of arguments a complex term has is

called its arity
10/19/16
woman(mia)
is a term with arity 1
loves(vincent,mia)
has arity 2
father(father(butch))
arity 1
64
ARITY IS IMPORTANT
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
In Prolog you can define two predicates with the

same functor but with different arity
Prolog would treat this as two different
predicates
In Prolog documentation arity of a predicate is
usually indicated with the suffix "/" followed by a
number to indicate the arity
65
EXAMPLE OF ARITY
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
This knowledge base defines
happy/1
listens2music/1
playsAirGuitar/1
66
OPERATORS AND FUNCTIONS

Normal Prolog operators are prefix:
Item2).
@=<(Item1, Item2).
==(Item1, Item2).
\==(Item1, Item2).
Aashik Azim
@>(Item1,
10/19/16
Some symbols can be used infix: arithmetic and

comparison
67
COMPARISON OPERATORS
Meaning
Not (negation by failure)
=, \=, =..
Unification, not unifiable, list unification
==, \==
Term identical, term not identical
@<, @=<, @>, @>=
Term less than, term less than or equal to, etc.
is
Unify left-hand side with result of evaluating right

hand side.
=:=, =\=
Arithmetic equal, arithmetic not equal
<, =<, >, >=
Arithmetic less than, etc.
Aashik Azim
\+
10/19/16
Operator
:
+, -, /\, \/
Add, subtract, bitwise AND, bitwise OR
*, /, //,
Mult, div, integer division
rem, mod
Different versions of mod (see manual)
>>, <<
Shift right, shift left
**, ^. \
Exponentiation, bitwise XOR, bitwise NOT
68
ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
69
ARITHMETIC
Example.
Aashik Azim
bonus(Number) :- Number is 2 + 3.
?- bonus(3).
No
?- bonus(5).
10/19/16
Yes
?- bonus(X).
X = 5
70
ARITHMETIC
10/19/16
Example.
| ?-
= and is have different

meanings
Aashik Azim
| ?- X is 5 + 2.
X = 7
yes
| ?- X = 5 + 2.
X = 5+2
yes
| ?- X is 5.3 + 7.
X = 12.3
yes
= means term assignment

is means arithmetic assignment
71
ARITHMETIC
Example: geography.pl
north latitudes and west longitudes are positive.

sound latitudes and east longitudes are negative.
*/
location(tokyo, 35, -139).
location(rome, 41, -12).
location(london, 51, 0).
location(canberra, -31, -149).
Try:
north_of(madrid, tokyo).
Aashik Azim
/*
10/19/16
west_of(X, tokyo).
west_of(london, X).
location(madrid, 48, 3).

north_of(X, Y) :location(X, Lat1, _),
location(Y, Lat2, _),
Lat1 > Lat2.
west_of(X, Y) :location(X, _, Long1),
location(Y, _, Long2),
Long1 > Long2.
72
TRACING
The prolog command is trace
Aashik Azim
|?-trace.
yes
[trace] 1 ?- north_of(madrid,tokyo).
Call: (7) north_of(madrid, tokyo) ? creep
Call: (8) location(madrid, _G2207, _G2208) ? creep
Exit: (8) location(madrid, 48, 3) ? creep
Call: (8) location(tokyo, _G2207, _G2208) ? creep
Exit: (8) location(tokyo, 35, -139) ? creep
Call: (8) 48>35 ? creep
Exit: (8) 48>35 ? creep
Exit: (7) north_of(madrid, tokyo) ? creep
true.
For more: visit: http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~
billw/dictionaries/prolog/tracing.html
10/19/16
73
TRACING
Aashik Azim
|?-notrace.
The debugger is switched off
Yes
|?-
10/19/16
The command to turn off is notrace
74
MAKING DECISIONS
// determine how hot it is

void howHot(string &HowHot, int Temp){
if (Temp >= 100)
HowHot = very;
else if (Temp >= 90)
HowHot = pretty;
else if (Temp >= 70)
HowHot = perfect;
else if (Temp < 70)
HowHot = cold;
}
Aashik Azim
are no if or case statements in prolog.

How do we make decisions?
Example: determine how hot it is:
10/19/16
There
75
MAKING DECISIONS
10/19/16
Making decisions (howHot.pl)
% determine how hot it is

Temp >= 100,
HowHot = very;
Temp < 100,
Can ask
howHot(X, 80).
But not
howHot(very, X).
Aashik Azim
Hot(HowHot, Temp) :-
Temp >= 90,

HowHot = pretty;
Temp < 90,
Temp >= 70,
HowHot = perfect;
Temp < 70,
HowHot = cold.
Cannot use is must use =

is only works on arithmetic
expressions
Must have this test because prolog
will view each or clause
76
independently. If we left out Temp <
100 then a temp of 110 would return
both very and pretty
10/19/16
Aashik Azim
Thanks
77

Prolog (Programming In: Logic)

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Prolog (Programming In: Logic)

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Aashik Azim

Exercises Teaching Material

Prolog Now! https://

Prolog interpreter http://www.swi-prolog.org/

The Art of Prolog by Leon Sterling and Ehud

There are many more Prolog interpreters

AIM OF THIS LECTURE

some simple examples of Prolog

other concepts, such as

the systematic study of Prolog by

"Programming with Logic"

BASIC IDEA OF PROLOG

Describe the situation of interest

as efficient as, say, C

logic program is a set of axioms, or

Predicate: Another name for a relation is a

The simplest kind of statement is called a fact.

Queries are a means of retrieving information

Examples: abraham, big_kahuna_burger,

sequence of characters of upper-case

arbitrary sequence of characters

'Vincent', 'Suarezs bite', '@$%'

sequence of special characters

A sequence of characters of upper-case letters,

THE LOGICAL VARIABLE,

Suppose we want to know of whom abraham is

Compound Terms: (functor)

Variables. Example: X, Y, etc.

GROUND VS. NONGROUND

queries, goals or terms with variable is a ground.

queries, goals or terms without variable is

PROLOG AND LOGIC

Clearly Prolog has something to do with logic

Use of modus ponens

Rules are statements of the form:

A collection of facts and rules is called a

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

There are three predicates

The comma ," expresses conjunction in Prolog

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

Sim ple Term s

Com plex Term s

The number of arguments a complex term has is

In Prolog you can define two predicates with the

OPERATORS AND FUNCTIONS

Some symbols can be used infix: arithmetic and

Unification, not unifiable, list unification

Term identical, term not identical

@<, @=<, @>, @>=

Term less than, term less than or equal to, etc.

Unify left-hand side with result of evaluating right

Arithmetic equal, arithmetic not equal

<, =<, >, >=

Arithmetic less than, etc.

Add, subtract, bitwise AND, bitwise OR

Mult, div, integer division

Different versions of mod (see manual)

Shift right, shift left

Exponentiation, bitwise XOR, bitwise NOT

= and is have different

= means term assignment