FUNDAMENTALS OF

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
T.Y.B.Tech.
Elective-I
2013-2014

Contents
Types of Aircraft Systems.
Mechanical Systems.
Electrical and Electronic Systems.
Auxiliary systems.
Mechanical Systems:

Environmental control systems (ECS),

Pneumatic systems,& Hydraulic systems,
Fuel systems,
Engine Control Systems,
Ice and rain protection systems,
Cabin Pressurization and Air Conditioning Systems,
Steering and Brakes
Systems Auxiliary Power Unit,
Electrical system.

Introduction to Avionics
Autopilot and flight management system, navigation systems,
communication, information systems, radar system.

Introduction
In the earliest biplanes are control /flown
by warping wings and control surfaces by
means of wires attached to the flying
controls in the cockpit.
The figure the multiplicity of
rigging/supports (Ropes/wires) and control
wires on an early monoplane.
All task are control by hand.
Use of wires and pulleys to connect the
flight control surfaces to the pilots controls
from many years until advances in aircraft
performance.

Morane Saulnier Monoplane refuelling before the 1913 Aerial Derby (Courtesy
of the Royal Aero Club)

 When top speeds advanced into the transonic (Speed

close to the speed of Sound) region the need for more complex
and more sophisticated methods became apparent.
They were needed first for high-speed fighter
aircraft and then with larger aircraft when jet
propulsion became more widespread.
The higher speeds resulted in higher loads on the
flight control surfaces which made the aircraft very
difficult to fly physically.
High control forces and a control problem which
was not initially understood.
To overcome the higher loadings, powered surfaces
began to be used with hydraulically powered
actuators.
To reduce the physical effort.

 A further complication of increasing top

speeds was aerodynamically related
effects.
The tendency of many high performance
aircraft to experience roll/yaw coupled
oscillations commonly called Dutch roll
led to the introduction of yaw dampers
and other auto-stabilisation systems.
For a transport aircraft these were
required for passenger comfort whereas
on military aircraft it became necessary
for target tracking and weapon aiming
reasons.

 The implementation of yaw dampers and

auto-stabilisation systems introduced
electronics into flight control.
Autopilots had used both electrical and
air driven means to provide an automatic
capability of flying the aircraft, thereby
reducing crew workload.
The electronics used to perform the
control functions incorporate analogue
sensor and actuator devices which
became capable of executing complex
control.

 Most modern fighter aircraft of any

sophistication now possess a fly-by-wire
system due to the weight savings and
considerable improvements in handling
characteristics which may be achieved.
In recent years this technology has been
applied to civil transports:
initially with the relaxed stability system
fitted to the Airbus A320 family and
A330/A340.
The Boeing 777 airliner also has a digital flyby-wire system, the first Boeing aircraft to do

Principles of Flight Control

The motion of an aircraft is defined in
relation to translational motion and
rotational motion around a fixed set of
defined axes.
Translational motion is that by which a vehicle
travels from one point to another in space.

For an conventional aircraft the direction in

which translational motion occurs is in the
direction in which the aircraft is flying.
The rotational motion relates to the motion
of the aircraft around three defined axes:
pitch, roll and yaw.

Flight Control Surfaces

The requirements for flight control
surfaces vary greatly between one
aircraft and another, depending upon the
role, range and agility needs of the
vehicle.

Primary Flight Control

Primary flight control in pitch, roll and
yaw is provided by the control surfaces.
Pitch control is provided by the moving
canard (untruth)
Located either side of the cockpit.
These surfaces provide the very powerful
pitch control authority required by an
agile high performance aircraft.

 Moving the stick forwards/back lifts or lowers

the aircrafts nose by generating more or less
lift at the tail
It uses Elevators to do this

 Roll control is provided by the differential

motion of the foreplanes, augmented to a
degree by the flaperons.
In order to roll to the right, the left
foreplane leading edge is raised relative
to the airflow generating greater lift than
before.
Conversely, the right foreplane moves
downwards by a corresponding amount
relative to the airflow thereby reducing
the lift generated.

 Moving the stick left/right rolls the aircraft by

generating more lift on one side.
It does this by moving flaps known as Ailerons

 Yaw control is provided by the single

rudder section.
Using the rudder pedals the pilot moves
the rudder left or right to change the
aircrafts direction.

Flight Control Linkage Systems

The pilots manual inputs to the flight controls
are made by moving the cockpit control column
or rudder pedals in accordance with the universal
convention:
Pitch control is exercised by moving the control
column fore and aft; pushing the column forward
causes the aircraft to pitch down, and pulling the
column aft results in a pitch up
Roll control is achieved by moving the control column
from side to side or rotating the control yoke; pushing
the stick to the right drops the right wing and vice
versa
Yaw is controlled by the rudder pedals; pushing the
left pedal will yaw the aircraft to the left while pushing
the right pedal will have the reverse effect

 There are presently two main methods of

connecting the pilots controls to the rest
of the flight control system. These are:
Push-pull control rod systems
Cable and pulley systems

Push-Pull Control Rod System

Figure shows a simplified threedimensional schematic of the Hawk 200
flight control which is typical of the
technique widely used for combat
aircraft.
The system splits logically into pitchyaw
(tailplane and rudder) and roll (aileron)
control runs respectively.
The pitch control input is fed from the left
hand of the control column to a bell-crank
lever behind the cockpit.

 Bell-crank levers are used to alter the

direction of the control runs.
The horizontal control rod runs parallel to a
tailplane trim actuator.
The output from these units is fed upwards
into the aircraft spine.
Trim actuators in tailplane (pitch), rudder (yaw)
and aileron (roll) control systems
Spring feel units in tailplane (pitch), rudder
(yaw) and aileron (roll) control systems
Q feel unit in the rudder (yaw) control system
Power control units (PCUs) for tailplane, rudder
and aileron actuation

Cable and Pulley System

The cable and pulley system is widely used for
commercial aircraft.
Sometimes used in conjunction with push-pull
control rods.
Figure shows a typical aileron control system.
Manual control inputs are routed via cables and a
set of pulleys from both captains and first officers
control wheels to located in the center section of
the aircraft.
At this point aileron and spoiler runs are split both
left/right and into separate aileron/spoiler control
runs.
Both control column/control wheels are
synchronized.

 Control cable runs are fed through the

aircraft by a series of pulleys, idler pulleys,
quadrants and control linkages in a similar
fashion to the pushpull rod system.
Tensiometer/lost motion devices situated
throughout the control system ensure that
cable tensions are correctly maintained and
lost motion eliminated.
Differing sized pulleys and pivot/lever
arrangements allow for the necessary
gearing changes throughout the control runs.
Trim units, feel units and PCUs are connected
at strategic points throughout the control
runs as for the push-pull rod system.

Trim and Feel

The rod and pulley of aircraft showed the
interconnection between the pilots
control columns and rudder bars and the
hydraulically powered actuators .
aircraft trim and feel is essential in
providing consistent handling
characteristics for the aircraft in all
configurations throughout the flight.

Trim
The need for trim actuation is explanation
of the aerodynamic forces which act upon
the aircraft in flight.
Figure shows a simplified diagram of the
pitch forces which act upon a stable
aircraft trimmed for level flight.
Aircraft weight -W, acts downwards at the
aircraft
centre-of-gravity or CG, As the aircraft is
stable the CG is ahead of the centre of
pressure where the lift force acts.

 The distance between the CG and the

centre of pressure is a measure of how
stable andalso how steerable the aircraft
is in pitch.
The closer the CG and centre of pressure,
the less stable and more steerable the
aircraft.
The converse is true when the CG and
centre of pressure are further apart.
Examining the forces acting about the
aircraft CG it can be seen that there is a
counter-clockwise moment exerted by a
large lift force acting .

Pitch forces acting in level flight

 If the aircraft is not to pitch nose-down

this should be counterbalanced by a
clockwise force provided by the tailplane.
This will be a relatively small force acting
with a large moment.
If the relative positions of the aircraft CG
and centre of pressure were to remain
constant throughout all conditions of
flight then the pilot could set up the trim
and no further control inputs would be
required.

 In practice the CG positions may vary due to changes in

the aircraft fuel load and the stores or cargo and
passengers the aircraft may be carrying.
Variations in the position of the aircraft CG position are
allowed within carefully prescribed limits.
These limits are called the forward and aft CG limits and
they determine how nose heavy or tail heavy the aircraft
may become and still be capable of safe and controllable
flight.
The aerodynamic centre of pressure similarly does not
remain in a constant position as the aircraft flight
conditions vary.
If the centre of pressure moves aft then the downward
force required of the tailplane will increase and the
tailplane angle of incidence will need to be increased.
These nose-up and nose-down biases are in fact called
nose-up and nose-down trim respectively.

Feel
The provision of artificial feel became
necessary when aircraft performance
increased to the point where it was no longer
physically possible for the pilot to apply the
high forces needed to move the flight control
surfaces.
Initially with servo-boosting systems, and later
with powered flying controls are used to
control the systems.
The two types of feel commonly used in
aircraft flight control systems are
spring feel and
Q feel.

 Spring feel, as the name suggests, is

achieved by loading the movement of the
flight control run against a spring of a
predetermined stiffness.
Therefore when the aircraft controls are
moved, the pilot encounters an increasing
force proportional to the spring stiffness.

 Q feel is a little more complicated and is more

directly related to the aerodynamics and precise
flight conditions that apply at the time of the
control.
As the aircraft speed increases the aerodynamic
load increases in a mathematical relationship
proportional to the air density and the square of
velocity.
The air density is relatively unimportant; the
squared velocity term has a much greater
effect, particularly at high speed.
That is the purpose of Q feel.
A Q feel unit receives air data information from
the aircraft system.

Q feel unit

Flight Control Actuation

The key element in the flight control

system, increasingly so with the advent
of fly-by-wire and active control units, is
the power actuation.
Actuation has always been important to
the ability of the flight control system to
attain its specified performance.
The development of analogue and digital
multiple control lane technology has put
the actuation central to performance and
integrity issues.

 Addressing actuation in ascending order

of complexity leads to the following
categories:
Simple mechanical actuation, hydraulically
powered
Mechanical actuation with simple
electromechanical features
Multiple redundant electromechanical
actuation with analogue control inputs and
feedback

Hydraulic and Pneumatic

Power Systems

Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

word Hydraulics means the study of
physical behavior of fluids.
Hydraulic systems in aircraft provide a
means for the operation of aircraft
components.
The operation of landing gear, flaps, flight
control surfaces, and brakes is largely
accomplished with hydraulic power
systems.
Each subsystem has a power generating
device (pump) reservoir, accumulator, heat
exchanger, filtering system, etc.

Major Advantage of Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems have many
advantages as power sources for
operating various aircraft units;
The advantages of
light weight,
ease of installation,
simplification of inspection, and
minimum maintenance requirements.

Hydraulic operations are also almost 100

percent efficient, with only negligible loss due to fluid
friction.

Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic system liquids are used
primarily to transmit and distribute forces
to various units to be actuated.
Liquids are able to do this because they
are almost incompressible.
Thus, if a number of passages exist in a
system, pressure can be distributed
through all of them by means of the
liquid.

Manufacturers of hydraulic devices

usually specify the type of liquid best
suited for use with their equipment in
view of the working conditions,
the service required,
temperatures expected inside and outside the
systems,
pressures the liquid must withstand,
the .possibilities of corrosion etc.

Some of the properties and characteristics

that must be considered when selecting a
satisfactory liquid for a particular system.

Viscosity
A satisfactory work of hydraulic system must
have to give a good seal at pumps, valves, and
pistons, but it must not be so thick that it
offers resistance to flow, leading to power loss
and higher operating temperatures.
These factors add to the load and to excessive
wear of parts.
A fluid that is too thin also leads to rapid wear
of moving parts or of parts that have heavy
loads.
The instruments used to measure the
viscosity of a liquid are known as
viscometers or viscometers.

Saybolt viscosimeter.

Chemical Stability
It is the liquids ability to resist oxidation
and deterioration for long periods.
for example,
when a system operates for a considerable
period of time at high temperatures.
Excessive temperatures have a great effect on
the life of a liquid.
Localized hot spots occur on bearings, gear
teeth, or at the point where liquid under
pressure is forced through a small orifice.
Continuous passage of a liquid through these
points may produce local temperatures high
enough to carbonize or sludge the liquid.

Chemical Stability
Liquids may break down if exposed to air,
water, salt, or other impurities.
Some metals, such as zinc, lead, brass,
and copper, have an undesirable
chemical reaction on certain liquids.

Flash Point
Flash point is the temperature at which a
liquid gives off vapor in sufficient
quantity to ignite momentarily or flash
when a flame is applied.
A high flash point is desirable for
hydraulic liquids because it indicates
good resistance to combustion and a low
degree of evaporation at normal
temperatures.

Fire Point
Fire point is the temperature at which a
substance gives off vapor in sufficient
quantity to ignite and continue to burn
when exposed to a spark or flame.
Like flash point, a high fire point is
required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

Types of Hydraulic Fluids

The three principal categories of
hydraulic fluids are:
1. Minerals
2. Polyalphaolefins
3. Phosphate esters

Mineral-Based Fluids
Mineral oil-based hydraulic fluid (MIL-H5606) is the oldest, used in 1940s.
It is used in many systems, especially
where the fire hazard is comparatively
low.
Mineral-based hydraulic fluid (MILH5606) is processed from petroleum.
It has an odor similar to penetrating oil
and is dyed red.
Synthetic rubber seals are used with
petroleum-based fluids.

Polyalphaolefin-Based Fluids
MIL-H-83282 is a fire-resistant
Polyalphaolefin-based fluid developed in
the 1960s to over come the flammability
characteristics of MIL-H-5606.
Significantly more flame resistant than
MIL-H-5606, but a disadvantage is the
high viscosity at low temperature.
It is generally limited to 40 F.
However, it can be used in the same
system and with the same seals, gaskets,
and hoses as MIL-H-5606..

Phosphate Ester-Based Fluid

These fluids are used in commercial
transport category aircraft.
These are extremely fire-resistant.
They are not fireproof and under certain
conditions, they burn.
The earliest generation of these fluids
was developed after World War II.
Today, types IV and V fluids are used.

Hydraulic Fluid Contamination

Two general contaminants are:
Abrasives, including such particles as core
sand, weld spatter, machining chips, and
rust.
Non-abrasives, including those resulting from
oil oxidation and soft particles worn or torn
from seals and other organic components.

Basic Hydraulic Systems

Every hydraulic system has a minimum
number of basic components in addition to a
means through which the fluid is transmitted.
A basic system consists of
a pump,
reservoir,
directional valve,
check valve,
pressure relieve valve,
selector valve,
actuator, and
filter.

Basic hydraulic system.

Open Center Hydraulic Systems

An open center system is one having fluid flow, but no
pressure in the system when the actuating
mechanisms are idle.
The pump circulates the fluid from the reservoir,
through the selector valves, and back to the reservoir.
The open center system may employ any number of
subsystems, with a selector valve for each subsystem.
The selector valves of the open center system are
always connected in series with each other.
the system pressure line goes through each selector
valve.
When one of the selector valves is positioned to
operate an actuating device, fluid is directed from the
pump through one of the working lines to the actuator.

Open center hydraulic system

Closed-Center Hydraulic Systems

In the closed-center system, the fluid is
under pressure whenever the power
pump is operating.
The three actuators are arranged in
parallel and actuating units.
This system differs from the open-center
system in that the selector or directional
control valves are arranged in parallel
and not in series.

Hydraulic Power Systems

Smaller aircraft have relatively low flight
control surface loads, and the pilot can
operate the flight controls by hand.
When aircraft started to fly faster and got
larger in size, the pilot was not able to
move the control surfaces by hand
anymore, and hydraulic power boost
systems were introduced.
Power boost systems assist the pilot in
overcoming high control forces, but the
pilot still actuates the flight controls by
cable or push rod.

Hydraulic Power Pack System

A hydraulic power pack is a small unit
that consists of an electric pump, filters,
reservoir, valves, and pressure relief
valve.
The advantage of the power pack is that
there is no need for a centralized
hydraulic power supply system and long
stretches of hydraulic lines, which
reduces weight.
Power packs could be driven by either an
engine gearbox or electric motor.

A basic closed-center hydraulic system with a variable displacement

pump.

Hydraulic Power Pack System

Hydraulic System Components

Reservoirs
Filters
Pumps
Valves
Accumulators
Actuators
Hydraulic Motor
Gaskets

Reservoirs
The reservoir is a tank in which an
adequate supply of fluid for the system is
stored.
Fluid flows from the reservoir to the
pump, where it is forced through the
system and eventually returned to the
reservoir.
The reservoir not only supplies the
operating needs of the system but it also
replenishes fluid lost through leakage.

Non-pressurized Reservoirs
Non-pressurized reservoirs are used in aircraft
that are not designed for forceful maneuvers,
do not fly at high altitudes, or in which the
reservoir is located in the pressurized area of
the aircraft.
High altitude in this situation means an altitude
where atmospheric pressure is inadequate to
maintain sufficient flow of fluid to the hydraulic
pumps.
Most non-pressurized reservoirs are
constructed in a cylindrical shape.
The outer housing is manufactured from a
strong corrosion-resistant metal.

Non-pressurized Reservoi

Pressurized Reservoirs
Reservoirs on aircraft designed for highaltitude flight are usually pressurized.
Pressurizing assures a positive flow of
fluid to the pump at high altitudes when
low atmospheric pressures are
encountered.
On some aircraft, the reservoir is
pressurized by bleed air taken from the
compressor section of the engine.
On others, the reservoir may be
pressurized by hydraulic system pressure.

Air-Pressurized Reservoirs
Air-pressurized reservoirs are used in
many commercial aircraft.
Pressurization of the reservoir is required
because the reservoirs are often located
in wheel wells or other non-pressurized
areas of the aircraft and at high altitude
their is not enough atmospheric pressure
to move the fluid to the pump inlet.

components
Reservoir pressur erelief valve: prevents over
pressurization of the reservoir. Valve opens at a
preset value.
Sight glasses (low and overfull)provides visual
indication for flight crews and maintenance
personnel that the reservoir needs to be serviced.
Reservoir sample valveused to draw a sample
of hydraulic fluid for testing.
Reservoir drain valveused to drain the fluids out
of the reservoir for maintenance operation.
Reservoir temperature transducerprovides
hydraulic fluid temperature information for the
flight deck.

Fluid-Pressurized Reservoirs
Some aircraft hydraulic system reservoirs
are pressurized by hydraulic system
pressure.
Regulated hydraulic pump output pressure
is applied to a movable piston inside the
cylindrical reservoir.
This small piston is attached to and moves
a larger piston against the reservoir fluid.
The reduced force of the small piston when
applied by the larger piston is adequate to
provide head pressure for high altitude
operation.

Reservoir pressurization module.

Operating principle behind

a fluid-pressurized hydraulic
reservoir.

Filters
A filter is a screening or straining device
used to clean the hydraulic fluid,
preventing foreign particles and
contaminating substances from
remaining in the system.

Micron-Type Filters
A typical micron-type filter assembly
utilizes an element made of specially
treated paper that is formed in vertical
wrinkles.
The micron element is designed to
prevent the passage of solids greater
than 10 microns (0.000394 inch) in size.

Pumps
All aircraft hydraulic systems have one or
more power-driven pumps and may have
a hand pump as an additional unit when
the engine-driven pump is inoperative.
Power-driven pumps are the primary
source of energy and may be either
engine driven, electric motor driven, or
air driven.

Hand Pumps
The hydraulic hand pump is used in some older
aircraft for the operation of hydraulic
subsystems and in a few newer aircraft
systems as a backup unit.
Hand pumps are generally installed for testing
purposes, as well as for use in emergencies.
Several types of hand pumps are used:
single action, double action, and rotary.

A single action hand pump draws fluid into the

pump on one stroke and pumps that fluid out
on the next stroke.
It is rarely used in aircraft due to this
inefficiency..

Double-action hand pumps

Double-action hand pumps produce fluid
flow and pressure on each stroke of the
handle.
The double action hand pump consists
housing that has a cylinder bore and two
ports, a piston, two spring-loaded check
valves, and an operating handle.
An O-ring on the piston seals against
leakage between the two chambers of the
piston cylinder bore.

 When the piston is moved to the right,

the pressure in the chamber left of the
piston is lowered.
The inlet port ball check valve opens and
hydraulic fluid is drawn into the chamber.
At the same time, the rightward
movement of the piston forces the piston
ball check valve against its seat.
Fluid in the chamber to the right of the
piston is forced out of the outlet port into
the hydraulic system.

A Rotary Hand Pump

A rotary hand pump may also be employed. It produces
continuous output while the handle is in motion.

Power-Driven Pumps
In current aircraft are of variable delivery,
compensator-controlled type or Constant delivery
pumps are also in use.
Principles of operation are the same for both
types of pumps.
Modern aircraft use a combination of enginedriven power pumps, electrical-driven power
pumps, air-driven power pumps, power transfer
units (PTU), and pumps driven by a RAT (Ram Air
Turbine).
For example, large aircraft, such as the Airbus
A380, have two hydraulic systems, eight enginedriven pumps, and three electrical driven pumps.

Engine-driven
pump.

Electrically-driven pump

Classification of Pumps
All pumps may be classified as either positive
displacement or no positive displacement.
Most pumps used in hydraulic systems are
positive displacement.
A non-positive displacement pump produces
a continuous flow.
Constant-Displacement Pumps
Gear-Type Power Pump
Gerotor Pump
Piston Pump
Vane Pump
Variable-Displacement Pump

Constant-displacement pumps
Constant-displacement pumps are sometimes
called constant-volume or constant-delivery
pumps.
They deliver a fixed quantity of fluid per
revolution.
Gear-Type Power Pump
A gear-type power pump is a constant-displacement
pump.
It consists of two meshed gears that revolve in a
housing.
The driving gear is driven by the aircraft engine or
some other power unit.
The driven gear meshes with, and is driven by, the
driving gear.

Gear-type power pump

Gerotor Pump
A gerotor-type power pump consists of a
housing containing an eccentric-shaped .
An internal gear rotor having seven wide
teeth of short height.
A spur driving gear having six narrow
teeth, and a pump cover that contains
two curved-shaped openings.
One opening extends into an inlet port
and the other extends into an outlet port.

Gerotor pump

Piston Pump
Piston pumps can be constantdisplacement or variable displacement
pumps.

Hydraulic pump shear shaft.

The basic pumping mechanism of piston-type pumps consists of a multiplebore .

The cylinder bores lie parallel to and symmetrically around the pump axis.
All aircraft axial-piston pumps have an odd number of pistons.

Bent Axis Piston Pump

Vane Pump
The vane-type power pump is also a constantdisplacement pump.
It consists of a housing containing four vanes
(blades), a hollow steel rotor with slots for the
vanes, and a coupling to turn the rotor.

Variable-Displacement Pump
A variable-displacement pump has a fluid
output that is varied to meet the pressure
demands of the system.
The pump output is changed
automatically by a pump compensator
within the pump.

Valves
Flow Control Valves
Flow control valves control the speed and/or
direction of fluid flow in the hydraulic system.
They provide for the operation of various
components when desired and the speed at
which the component operates.
Examples of flow control valves include:
selector valves, check valves, sequence valves,
priority valves, shuttle valves, quick disconnect
valves, and hydraulic fuses.

Selector Valves

Operation of a closed-center four-way selector valve,

which controls an actuator.

poppet-type four-way selector valve.

Four-way servo control valve.

Heat Exchangers
Transport-type aircraft use heat
exchangers in their hydraulic power
supply system to cool the hydraulic fluid
from the hydraulic pumps.
This extends the service life of the fluid
and the hydraulic pumps.
They are located in the fuel tanks of the
aircraft.
The heat exchangers use aluminum
finned tubes to transfer heat from the
fluid to the fuel.

Hydraulic Heat Exchanger

104

Advantages of Hydraulics
There are many advantages to utilising hydraulic
systems within airframe design.
The system is often lighter in weight than a mechanical
system and have a low installation space requirement
hence ideal for being buried within the airframe.
Hydraulic systems can develop almost unlimited force or
torque
They are generally reliable: They either work or they do
not work!
They are easy to maintain and are considered repairfriendly.
They are smooth and responsive to operator inputs i.e.
little or no delay (or lag).
105

Airframe Hydraulics
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106

Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic systems work in a very similar way to that of
hydraulic systems.
The major difference is that in pneumatic systems, high
pressure air is used instead of hydraulic fluid.
This is because air is much more compressible than fluid
and it is much easier to store the pressure, using reservoirs.

This can give a reserve of power for short bursts of very

heavy operation, or for emergency use if the system
fails.
In an airframe, a pneumatic system can be used in place
of a hydraulic system
107

Typical Pneumatic System

Like the hydraulic system, the layout and
complexity of a pneumatic system will vary
based on its primary function, but the principles
and components of the system will be the same.
Typically, a pneumatic system will consist of;
A Storage Cylinder for the compressed air
Pressure Gauges
Pressure Valves Non-Return, Reducing, Maintaining
Pneumatic Air Lines
A number of Pneumatic Selector Valves
A number of Pneumatic Actuators
108

Typical Layout
The diagram below shows a typical
layout of components in a Pneumatic
System.

109

Disadvantages of
Pneumatics
However, the compressibility of air can be a major
disadvantage, as pneumatic systems lack the
instant response that a simple hydraulic system can
provide.
The rate of movement of pneumatic actuators
depends strongly on the load, or the force which
resists the movement.
This compressibility also means that the position of
systems needing partial movements, such as
control surfaces, cannot be controlled with any
degree of accuracy.
110

Disadvantage of Pneumatics
Another
major
disadvantage
of
using
pneumatic systems is the relative inefficiency
in transmitting power in comparison with
hydraulic systems
This is because energy is lost in compressing
the air, a problem that does not occur with
hydraulic fluid.
Because of these major disadvantages, many
aircraft are not fitted with a pneumatic system.
111

Questions
Here are some questions for you!
1. Name the main components of the Hydraulic
System?
2. What are the two main types of power pump
used within the Hydraulic System?
3. What does Pascals Law
compressibility of fluids?

state

about

the

4. Name the main components of the Pneumatic

System?
112

Boeing 737 hydraulic system (simplified).

High-pressure pneumatic system.

Pneumatic emergency landing gear extension

Environmental Control
System
(ECS)

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/ecs.pdf

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/ecs.pdf
118

Outline

Pneumatic Subsystem
Air Conditioning
How it works
Cabin Pressure
Emergency Oxygen

119

Pneumatic Subsystem
Cabin
pressurization
Air
conditioning
Ice Protection
Cross engine
starting

Courtesy: Airplane Design Part IV: Layout Design of Landing Gear and Systems (Pg. 334

120

Air Conditioning
Control temperature
Takes air from the
engine bleed and
cools it
Air is filter through
purification systems
Avionics equipment
require a direct line
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/ecs.pdf

121

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Air enters engine

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/1newintake.avi

122

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Passes through a catalytic ozone converter

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/5newpackanim.avi123

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Enters the air-conditioning packs

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/6newpak2statmix.avi
124

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Enters the mixing manifold

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/8mixmanifold.avi

125

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Outside air and re-circulated air mix

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/10maindistribution.avi
126

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Air is supplied to cabin

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/12cabinvents.avi 127

AIAA Team 2

ECS

How it Works

Air is exhausted from the airplane

http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/avi/13exhaust.avi

128

AIAA Team 2

ECS

Emergency Oxygen
Incase of a sudden drop in pressure
Types of systems
Gaseous (crew)
Chemical (passengers)
Liquid oxygen (military)
weight
volume

http://www.studio2f.com/misc/images/oxygen_masks_deployed.jpg

C-130 has a 25 liter liquid oxygen type

system

provides for 96 man-hours of oxygen at 25,000

feet
129
portable units are also available

AIAA Team 2

Example

http://www.carletonls.com/productsbu/aviationo2/ADV10572.pdf

ECS

130

AIAA Team 2

ECS

Cabin Pressure
300 ft/min cabin pressure descending
500 ft/min cabin pressure ascending
Dont exceed a
cabin-tooutside
pressure
differential of
8.60 psi.
Current cabin
pressure max
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/cabinair/ecs.pdf

131

AIAA Team 2

ECS

Future
Lower Cabin Pressure (~6000 ft)

http://www.boeingcapital.com/p2p/techredefinesjoy.htm

132

Environmental Control
System (ECS)

System Components
Bleed Air
Air Conditioning
Ventilation &
Distribution
Pressure
Regulation

boeing.com

System Description
Bleed Air
Q

heart of the ECS

automatic aside from an

on/off switch in cockpit

comprised of the engine,

valves, ports, and sensors that allow airflow

ASHRAE

Q selects the right bleed port to send air through

(dependant upon where the aircraft is, i.e. takeoff,
cruise, or landing)
Q decreases the pressure and temperature of air
entering the
aircraft so it can be dispersed for the
remainder of the ECS

System Description

(cont.)

Ozone Converter
Q disassociates ozone to
oxygen molecules

Q uses a catalyst such

as palladium (Pd)

Q up to 95% effective when new

limcoairepair.com

System Description

(cont.)

Air-conditioning Packs
Q

air is dried to 10-20% humidity

air is cooled from 400F

(temperature when leaving
ozone converter) to 60F

most commercial aircraft

utilize two or three air-cycle
machines linked in parallel
as a safety precaution against
in-flight failures

ntsb.gov

System Description

(cont.)

Distribution and Filtration

Q air from air-conditioner is
mixed in manifold with
filtered, re-circulated air.

Q air is treated with a HEPA

(high-efficiency particulate air)
filter - nearly 99.9% effective
in removing microbes

boeing.com

Q air is distributed from manifold

to ductwork, and then through vents at roughly
500 fpm

Q air stays in cabin 2-3 minutes before it is recirculated

System Description
Backup Oxygen Supply
Q

in event of ECS system failure

oxygen stored in container

and valve assemblies at 1850psi

reduced to 70psi for delivery

through overhead masks

(cont.)

System Description

(cont.)

Pressure Regulation
Q

desired pressure altitude

of 8000ft
Q cabin controlled by
pressure regulator
Q located so that all cabin air
must pass through the outflow
boeing.com
valve section to return to the atmosphere
Q regulator assembly recognizes the changes in
ambient pressure and controls the inflow and/or
outflow of air depending on controller signals
Q safety valve incorporated to reduce high cabin
pressure

Analyses Performed
Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
Failure Mode & Effects Analysis
(FMEA)
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

Preliminary Hazard Analysis

PHA
Q

takes place during the design phase

review of historical safety experience

identifies areas for concern

identifies and evaluates hazards

begins to consider safety design criteria

Preliminary Hazard Analysis *

Part

Hazard Description

Cause

Effect

Ozone
converter

Ozone concentration
exceeding safety limit

Catalyst Poisoning

Health effects: Nasal congestion,

eye-irritation, chest pain, cough,
headache

Bleed Air
System

IP Valve failure

Mechanical, Electrical
malfunction

Atmospheric air flow ceases

Pressure Regulating
and shut-off valve
failure

Mechanical, Electrical
malfunction

Air packs

Air pack fails

Filtration

Probability

Corrective Measure

Severity

Remote

High quality equipment

Periodic replacement schedule

III

Improbable

Allowance of manual turn-on

Redundant valve downstream
Rigorous maintenance
Provide backup oxygen supply
system

II

Air flow too High or too Low

Damage to Air packs, cabin interior
damage

Remote

Divert air to cowl or exhaust

Backup oxygen system

II

Turbine, compressor, or
power failure

Hot and humid air

Remote

Shut off malfunctioning air pack

Provide multiple air packs
Maintenance

III

Impure air

HEPA filter aged

Infectious air likely to spread disease

Remote

Regular maintenance/replacement

IV

Distribution

Damage in ducts

Human error during

maintenance

Lower air exchange rate

Remote

Detect and patch leaks periodically

IV

Back-up
Oxygen tank

Leak in storage tank

Damaged valve
Cylinder fatigue
Tank failure

Explosion, Structural damage, Fire

Improbable

Isolation
Rigorous maintenance of tank to
ascertain integrity.

Pressurization
System

Regulator assembly
malfunctions

Loss of calibration

Variation in pressure

Improbable

Frequent calibration, maintenance

III

Outflow valve fails

Mechanical, Electrical
failure

Increase in pressure, damage to

structure

Improbable

Redundancy

II

* To avoid excessive complications in the hazard analyses, the following simplifying assumptions were made to define the system:
- Environment control system of a commercial aircraft, cruising at 35,000ft with engines functioning ideally

PHA(cont.)
Bleed Air System
Q IP Valve
Q temperature sensor

Pressurization System
Q regulator assembly
Q relief valve

Failure Mode & Effects

Analysis
FMEA
Q

reliability form of analysis

may contain events that will not

contribute to an accident
Q

analyzes system components for their

contribution to a state of unreliability

Failure Mode & Effects Analysis

Subsystem

Component

Causes of
Failure

Standards/Reg
Ozone
Converter

Subsystem
Noble Catalyst
(Palladium)

FAR 25.832
FAR 121.578
ASHRAE 621989

Bleed Air

Failure Effects

IP Valve

Improper
Maintenance
Catalyst
Poisoning

No O3
Conversion

Mechanical,
Electrical
malfunction

FC: Subsystem
Failure,
Atmospheric air
flow ceases

FAR/ JAR
25.1309,
25.1438

FO: Loss of air

flow control

Pressure
Regulating and
shut-off valve

Mechanical,
Electrical
malfunction

FC: Whole
Subsystem
Failure,
Atmospheric air
flow ceases

Failure
Controls

No effect

FC: No cabin
airflow

FC: System
Malfunction

FO: Excessive
airflow, Nonideal air in
cabin

FO: System
overload

FC: No cabin
airflow

FC: No airflow

FO: Increased
cabin pressure

Mechanical,
Electrical
malfunction

Temperature of
Air entering Air
packs may be too
high (FAM valve
shuts) or too low
(FAM valve fully
opens)

Too Hot or
Too cold air in
the cabin

Failure Controls

System

Harmful Air,
Health effects:
Nasal
congestion,
eye-irritation,
chest pain,
cough,
headache

FO: Loss of air

flow control

Temperature
Sensor

Failure
Level

Remote

Improbable

High quality
equipment

Periodic
replacement
schedule

FC: Warnings /
Alarms, Activate
back-up O2
system, Rigorous
maintenance
FO: Redundant
valve downstream,
Warnings /
Alarms, Periodic
maintenance

Improbable

FO: Damage
to airpacks,
Cabin
environment
damage

Possible
damage to air
packs, and
cabin interior.

FC: Divert air to

cowl or exhaust,
Activate back-up
O2 system,
Warnings / Alarms
FO: Divert air to
wing anti-ice,
Redundant valve

Improbable

Warning,
Redundant
sensor, Close
shut-off valve

Subsystem

Component

Causes of Failure

Standards/Re
g

Failure Effects
Subsystem

Failure
Controls

Failure
Level

Failure Controls

System

Bleed Air

Precooler

Mechanical
malfunction
Obstruction in the
cooler

Temp of bleed air

exceeds fuel
safety threshold

Hot air in the

cabin

Damage to airpacks

Improbable

Warning
Divert flow to cowl

Air packs

Heat
Exchanger

Mechanical
malfunction
Obstruction in the
cooler

Air pack will

overheat

Hot and humid

air

Damage to airpacks, Possible

damage to
water separator

Improbable

Provide excessive
air packs.
Use reliable
equipment
Maintain
periodically

Water
Separator

Mechanical /
Electrical
malfunction

Failure to remove
water from sir

Humid air

Humid air
entering cabin

Improbable

Use multiple airpacks.

FAR/JAR
25.1309
FAR/JAR
25.1461

Maintain regularly

Filtration

HEPA Filter

No standards
yet formed

Distribution

Relevant
standards not
found

Failure to purify
air

Not replaced
during
maintenance

Infectious air
likely to
spread
disease

Impure air
entering cabin

Improbable

Regular
maintenance/
replacement
Reduce amount of
air recirculated

Network of
Ducts

Human error
during
maintenance,
manufacture

Lower air
exchange rate

More energy
Consumed

Inefficient
performance

Improbable

Periodic
Maintenance

Oxygen tank

Damaged valve
Cylinder fatigue
Tank failure

System
malfunction

Hazardous
oxygen
present.
Explosion,
Structural
damage, Fire

Major damage
to the system.

Improbable

Isolation,
Rigorous
maintenance of
tank to ascertain
integrity
Fire protection
measures

No standards
yet formed
Auxiliary
Oxygen
Supply

HEPA filter aged

Subsystem

Component

Causes of
Failure

Failure Effects
Subsystem

Failure
Level

Failure Controls

Failure
Controls

System

Masks

Panel gets stuck

Oxygen delivery
fails

Lack of oxygen
to passenger.
Potential for
bodily harm

System
malfunction

Improbable

Allow manual
operation by
crew.

Regulator
assembly

Loss of
calibration

Assembly fails to
perform correctly

Possible
overpressure

System failure

Improbable

Stress on
calibration during
maintenance

Outflow valve

Mechanical,
Electrical failure

FC: possible
overpressure
FO:
Depressurization

Increase in
pressure,
damage to
structure,
impure air.

Impure air

Improbable

Redundancy,

Relief Valve

Mechanical
failure

FC: No change if
other components
function
successfully
FO:
Depressurization

FC: Possible
overpressure if
other
components fail
FO: No
pressurization

FC: No change if
other
components
function
successfully
FO:
Depressurization

Improbable

Thorough
maintenance

Pressurization

FC: Fails Closed

FO: Fails Open
FAM: Fan Air Modulator
FAR: Federal Aviation Regulation
JAR: Joint Aviation Regulation
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

FMEA

(cont.)

Bleed Air System

IP Valve
Q temperature sensor
Q

Pressurization System
regulator assembly
Q relief valve
Q

Auxiliary Oxygen Supply

storage tank
Q fire protection
Q

Fault Tree Analysis

FTA
Q method structures relations in a graphic
representation to form a Boolean logic model
Q

structured to end in a specific outcome

directs deductively to accident-related events

can be qualitative or quantitative

provides insight into system behavior

Poor Air

Air Cond
(A)

Filtration
(C)

Bleed Air
(C)
Turbine
Failure

Comp.
Failure

HEPA

Temp.
Sensor

Press.
Sensor

Likelihood
Improbable
Remote
Frequency
Medium - Low
T = A+ B + C
= 6 E -4

O3
Conv.

No Air

Bleed Air
(A)

IP
Valve

Back-Up
(B)

Pressure Reg
(C)

Relief
Valve

O2
Mask

Press.
Valve

Likelihood
All events are extremely improbable
Frequency
Low
T = A*B
= 6 E -12

O2
Tanks

Conclusions &
Recommendations
Install redundant temperature sensors
downstream of precooler
Q entrance to cabin
Q

Add redundant valves

downstream of IP valve
Q cabin relief valves
Q

C&R

(cont.)

Fire protection
fire resistant materials
Q install sprinkler heads
Q smoke hoods
Q

Auxiliary Oxygen Supply

explosion resistant casing for storage
tank
Q O2 sensors
Q

manual O2 mask release

C&R

(cont.)

Frequent software upgrades

Detailed maintenance procedures

SECONDARY SYSTEMS

Aircraft Electrical System

Aircraft Electrical system

Electrical component
Storage Battery
DC & AC Generator
Control and Protection in DC
Electrical System
Electrical Machine and control
Lighting

When, Why Electric Energy was

used in an aircraft?

Electrical energy is being widely used

Clean form of energy absence of
smoke, ashes, dust, etc.
Easily convertible to light, heat,
mechanical, chemical energy etc.
Easily and economically
transportable by means of running
cables.

 Electrical systems have been an

onboard fixture since the Wright Flyer.
In those days the role of electricity was
limited to the magneto which provides
sufficient voltage to spark the fuel/air
mixture.

Magnetos still supplied the spark

to the engines, but 14- or 28-volt
direct-current generator supplied
current to operate the navigation
and landing lights, the radios.
Generators kept the batteries
charged to operate the electric
motor used to start the engines.

 The years between the two world

wars is
the golden age of
aviation, improved in importance
and complexity.
As the twentieth century ended,
electrical systems have become
just about equal in importance
with the engines.

 For many years, light planes

exclusively used the 14-volt
electrical system. Starting
approximately in the early 1980s,
the 28-volt system began to take
over light aircraft.
The primary purpose of igniting the
fuel/air
mixture is still the
domain of the magneto. However,
the demand for electrical energy in
the airplane has increased

 Jet airliners have extremely

complex electrical systems and
use alternating current as the
primary source of electricity.
Batteries are used for emergency
and
backup operations and for
some special
applications.

DEFINITIONS OF
AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Electrical System
An electrical system consists of an
electrical power source, its power
distribution system and the
electrical load connected to that
system.

A typical aircraft electrical system

consists of a primary (main)
power source, emergency power
source, secondary power
conversion equipment, system
control and protection devices,
interconnection network, and
power distribution system.
New-generation aircraft rely
heavily on electrical power
because of the wide use of
electronic flight instrument

Electrical Power Uses

Aircraft electrical power is used to
operate:
Aircraft Flight Instruments
Essential Systems
Passenger Services

Electrical Power Uses (cont.)

Essential power is power that the aircraft needs
to be able to continue safe operation
Passenger services power is the power that used
for:

Cabin lighting
Operation of entertainment systems
Preparation of food

Power Used
Aircraft electrical components
operate on many different voltages
both AC and DC
However, most of the systems use:
115 VAC @ 400 Hz
28 VDC

26 VAC is also used in some

aircraft for lighting

Electrical Source

The electrical equipment which

produces,
converts or transforms electrical
power.

Electrical Source
Some common AC sources are
identified
as follows:

AC alternators
inverters
transformers
frequency changers.

Electrical Source
Some common DC sources are
DC generators
converters
batteries.

Primary (Main) Power Source

Primary Power Source

A primary source is equipment that
generates electrical power from
energy
other than electrical, and is
independent
of any other electrical source.

Secondary Source
A secondary
source is
equipment that
transforms and/or
converts primary
source power to
supply electrical
power to either AC
or DC powered
equipment .

Secondary source.
A secondary source is equipment
that transforms and/or converts
primary source power to supply
electrical power to either AC or DC
powered equipment.
A secondary source is entirely
dependent upon the primary source
and is considered part of the load
of the primary source.

Emergency Power Source

Emergency power
In the event of a primary power
source
failure, emergency power is
usually
provided from independent
auxiliary
power unit (APU)-driven
generator(s),
ram air or
hydraulically-driven generator(s), or
batteries.

Ground power

ground power source

A ground power source can be
connected to the bus bar distribution
system thus allowing all electrical
systems to be powered
independently of aircraft battery or
generating systems. The source can
be either a motorised generating unit
or a battery unit.

Nominal rating

This rating is usually a continuous duty

rating for specified operating
conditions.

Condition of Power Sources

Normal electrical power operation
Abnormal electrical power operation
Emergency electrical power
operation

Normal electrical power operation

Normal operating conditions
assumes that all of the available
electrical power system is
functioning correctly within Master
Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
limitations (e.g. AC and/or DC
Generators, Transformer Rectifier
Units, Inverters, Main Batteries, APU
etc.).

Abnormal electrical power operation

Abnormal operation occurs when a
malfunction or failure in the electric
system has taken place and the
protective devices of the system are
operating to remove the malfunction
or the failure from the remainder of
the system before the limits of
abnormal operation are exceeded.

Emergency electrical power operation

Emergency operation is a condition
that occurs following a loss of all
normal electrical generating power
sources or other malfunction that
results in operation on standby
power (batteries and or other
emergency generating source such
as an APU or Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
only.

Classification of electrical
load
Vital (critical, emergency)
Essential
Non-essential

Typical Aircraft Electrical System

Primary (main) power source
Emergency power source
Secondary power conversion
equipment
System control and protection
devices
Interconnection network
Power distribution system

As a engineer, we should know the

following information
electrical system operation, which
describes
primary and secondary
power sources, bus configuration
with circuit breakers and connected
loads for each bus. A copy of the bus
wiring diagram or electrical
schematic should also be
considered for inclusion in the report.

As a engineer, we should know the

following information
alternators and other power source
description and related data
(including such items as battery
discharge curves, Transformer
Rectifier Unit (TRU), Inverter, APU,
RAT, etc.)

List of Electrical Data

Function of System Components

The basic functions of the electrical
systems components are to:
Generate Power
Control Electrical Power
Protect the Electrical System
Distribute Electrical Power Throughout
the Aircraft

Continental 0-200

Alternator

Ammeter and Over Voltage light

Magnetos

Fuel System
All powered aircraft require fuel on board
to operate the engine(s).
A fuel system consisting of:
storage tanks,
pumps,
filters,
valves,
fuel lines,
metering devices, and
monitoring devices

 Since fuel load can be a significant portion of

the aircrafts weight.
a sufficiently strong airframe must be
designed.
Varying fuel loads and shifts in weight during
maneuvers must not negatively affect control
of the aircraft in flight.
Each fuel system must be constructed and
arranged to ensure fuel flow at a rate and
pressure to proper engine and auxiliary power
unit (APU).
It functioning under each likely operating
condition.

Aircraft fuel systems must deliver fuel

during any maneuver

Fuel System Independence

Each fuel system for a multiengine
airplane must be arranged so that, in at
least one system configuration,
the failure of any one component (other
than a fuel tank) does not result in the
loss of power of more than one engine or
require immediate action by the pilot to
prevent the loss of power of more than
one engine.

Fuel System Lightning Protection

The fuel system must be designed and
arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel
vapor within the system by direct
lightning strikes or swept lightning
strokes (where highly probable).
Swept strokes occur when the lightning
strike is deformed by interaction with
aerodynamic forces and propagates in a
unique manner due to the material and
shape of the airframe surfaces.
A corona is a luminous discharge.

Flow Between Interconnected Tanks

If fuel can be pumped from one tank to
another in flight, the fuel tank vents and
the fuel transfer system must be
designed so that no structural damage to
any airplane component can occur
because of overfilling of any tank.

Fuel System Hot Weather Operation

Each fuel system must be free from vapor
lock when using fuel at its critical
temperature, with respect to vapor
formation.
For turbine fuel, the critical temperature
must be 110 F (43C) , -0 (-17C)

Fuel Tanks
Each fuel tank must be able to withstand,
without failure, the vibration, inertia, fluid,
and structural loads to which it may be
subjected in operation.
Fuel tanks with flexible liners must
demonstrate that the liner is suitable for
the particular application.
Each integral fuel tank must have adequate
facilities for interior inspection and repair.
Additionally, each fuel quantity indicator
must be adjusted to account for the
unusable fuel supply.

Fuel Tank Tests

Aircraft fuel tanks must be able to withstand the
forces that are encountered throughout the
entire spectrum of operation.
A main focus is to ensure that tanks are strong
enough to remain fully operational and not
deform when under various loads.
Vibration resistance without leaking is also a
concern.
Tanks are tested under the most critical
condition that may be encountered.
Fuel tank supporting structure must be designed
for the critical loads that could occur during
flight or when landing with fuel pressure loads.

Fuel Tank Installation

No fuel tank may be installed on the engine side of
a firewall, and there must be at least -inch of
clearance between the fuel tank and the firewall.
Each tank must be isolated from personnel
compartments of the aircraft by a fume-proof and
fuel-proof .
Pressurization loads should not affect the tank(s).
Each tank compartment must be ventilated and
drained to prevent the accumulation of flammable
fluids or vapors.
Aircraft fuel tanks must be designed, located, and
installed to retain fuel when subjected to inertia
loads resulting from ultimate static load , and under
conditions likely to occur when the airplane lands.

Fuel Tank Filler Connection

Each fuel tank filler connection must be specifically
marked.
Aircraft with engines that use only gasoline fuel must
have
filler openings no larger than 2.36 inches in diameter.
Turbine fuel aircraft filler openings must be no smaller
than 2.95 inches.
Spilled fuel must not enter the fuel tank compartment
or any part of the airplane other than the tank itself.
Each filler cap must provide a fuel-tight seal for the
main filler opening.
There may be small openings in the fuel tank cap for
venting purposes or for the purpose of allowing
passage of a fuel gauge through the cap.

Types of Aviation Fuel

Reciprocating Engine FuelAVGAS
Reciprocating engines burn gasoline, also
known as AVGAS.
It is specially formulated for use in aircraft
engines.
Combustion releases energy in the fuel,
which is converted into the mechanical
motion of the engine.

 Volatility
Volatility is a term used to describe how readily a substance
changes from liquid into a vapor.
For reciprocating engines, highly volatile fuel is desired.
Liquid gasoline delivered to the engine induction system
carburetor must vaporize in the carburetor to burn in the engine.

Vapor Lock
Vapor lock is a condition in which AVGAS vaporizes in the fuel
line or other components between the fuel tank and the
carburetor.
This typically occurs on warm days on aircraft with engine-driven
fuel pumps that suck fuel from the tank(s).
Vapor lock can be caused by excessively hot fuel, low pressure,
or excessive turbulence of the fuel traveling through the fuel
system.
In each case, liquid fuel vaporizes prematurely and blocks the
flow of liquid fuel to the carburetor.

 Carburetor Icing
As fuel vaporizes, it draws energy from its
surroundings to change state from a liquid to a
vapor.
This can be a problem if water is present.
When fuel vaporizes in the carburetor, water in
the fuel-air mixture can freeze and deposit inside
the carburetor and fuel induction system.
The fuel discharge nozzle, throttle valve, venture,
or simply the walls of the induction system all can
develop ice.
As the ice builds, it restricts the fuel-air flow and
causes loss of engine power.
In severe cases, the engine stops running.

An example of common
areas where ice can form
on
a carburetor. The
evaporation of volatile
fuel takes energy from
its surroundings to
change state. As it does,
water in the fuel-air
mixture condenses and
freezes.

Aircraft Fuel Systems

Each aircraft fuel system must store and
deliver clean fuel to the engine(s) at a
pressure and flow rate able to sustain
operations regardless of the operating
conditions of the aircraft.
Small single-engine aircraft fuel systems vary
depending on factors, such as tank location and
method of metering fuel to the engine.
A high-wing aircraft fuel system can be designed
differently from one on a low-wing aircraft.
An aircraft engine with a carburetor has a
different fuel system than one with fuel
injection.

Gravity Feed Systems

High-wing aircraft with a fuel tank in each
wing are common.
With the tanks above the engine, gravity
is used to deliver the fuel.
The space above the liquid fuel is vented
to maintain atmospheric pressure on the
fuel as the tank empties.
The two tanks are also vented to each
other to ensure equal pressure when both
tanks feed the engine.

Pump Feed Systems

Low- and mid-wing single reciprocating
engine aircraft cannot utilize gravity-feed
fuel systems because the fuel tanks are
not located above the engine.
Instead, one or more pumps are used to
move the fuel from the tanks to the
engine.

High-Wing Aircraft With Fuel Injection System

Some high-wing, high-performance,

single-engine general aviation aircraft are
equipped with a fuel system that features
fuel injection rather than a carburetor.
It combines gravity flow with the use of a
fuel pump(s).

Boeing 777 fuel tank locations and capacities.

Fuel System Components

Fuel Tanks
There are three basic types of aircraft fuel
tanks:
rigid removable tanks, bladder tanks, and
integral fuel tanks.
Most tanks are constructed of noncorrosive
material(s).
Aircraft fuel tanks have a low area called a
sump that is designed as a place for
contaminants and water to settle.
The sump is equipped with a drain valve used
to remove the impurities during preflight.

Rigid Removable Fuel Tanks

Many aircraft, especially older ones, utilize
an obvious choice for fuel tank
construction.
A rigid tank is made from various
materials, and it is strapped into the
airframe structure.
The tanks are often riveted or welded
together.
They typically are made from 3003 or 5052
aluminum alloy or stainless steel and are
riveted and seam welded to prevent leaks.

Ice and Rain Protection

Systems

SAFETY THROUGH
PROFESSIONALISM

Facts about ICING Accidents

11% of weather accidents involve ICING
57% of ICING accidents involved SINGLE
ENGINE FIXED GEAR AIRCRAFT
53% of icing accidents occurred in
MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
14% occurred near large bodies of WATER
57% of Pilots received Briefings and
ICING CONDITIONS were indicated
49% OF ICING ACCIDENTS resulted in
LOSS OF LIFE

Negative Effects of Ice Buildup

Destroys smooth flow of air
over wing, leading to severe
decrease in lift and increase
in drag forces
Can change pitching moment
As angle of attack is
increased to compensate for
decreased lift, more
accumulation can occur on
lower wing surface
Causes damage to external
equipment such as antennae
and can clog inlets, and
cause impact damage to
fuselage and engines
Considered a cumulative

http://www.aopa.org/asf/publications/sa11.pdf#search=%22anti-icing%20systems%20aircraft%22

Types of Ice
Rime: has a rough milky
white appearance and
generally follows the surface
closely
Clear/Glaze: sometimes
clear and smooth but usually
contain some air pockets
that result in a lumpy
translucent appearance,
denser, harder and more
difficult to break than rime
ice
Mixed

Ice Detection
Electronic ice detection common, but can give
false readings
Guidance Material is developing a mass based
ice detection system where ice builds up on
external probe
After mass of probe has increased due to
additional ice, anti-icing systems are alerted
and turned on
This increases fuel efficiency and system life as
de-icing systems are only turned on as required
by conditions

Types of Ice Removal

Anti-Icing
Preemptive, turned on before the flight enters
icing conditions
Includes: thermal heat, prop heat, pitot heat,
fuel vent heat, windshield heat, and fluid
surface de-icers

De-Icing
Reactive, used after there has been
significant ice build up
Includes surface de-ice equipment such as
boots, weeping wing systems, and heated
wings

Propeller Anti-Icers
Ice usually appears
on propeller before it
forms on the wing
Can be treated with
chemicals from
slinger rings on the
prop hub
Graphite electric
resistance heaters on
leading edges of
blades can also be

Windshield Anti-Icers
Usually uses resistance
heat to clear windshield
or chemical sprays while
on the ground
Liquids used include: ethylene glycol,
propylene glycol, Grade B Isopropyl alcohol,
urea, sodium acetate, potassium acetate,
sodium formate, and chloride salts
Chemicals are often bad for the environment

Thermal Heat
Air Heated
Bleed air from engine heats
inlet cowls to keep ice from
forming
Bleed air can be ducted to
wings to heat wing surface as
well
Ice can also build up within
engine, so shutoff valves
need to be incorporated in
design
Usually used to protect
leading edge slat, and engine
inlet cowls

Resistance heater

Airplane Design, Book 4,

Boots
Inflatable rubber strips
that run along the
leading edge of wing and
tail surfaces
When inflated, they
expand knocking ice off
of wing surface
After ice has been
removed, suction is
applied to boots,
returning them to the
original shape for normal
flight
Usually used on smaller
planes

Weeping Wing
Fluid is pumped
through mesh screen
on leading edge of
wing and tail
Chemical is distributed
over wing surface,
melting ice
Can also be used on
propeller blades and
windshields

Electro-impulse Deicing
Electromagnetic coil
under the skin induces
strong eddy currents on
surface
Delivers mechanical
impulses to the surface
on which ice has formed
Strong opposing forces
formed between coil and
skin
Resulting acceleration
sheds ice from the
surface
Can shed ice as thin as
0.05

Typical Anti-Icing
C-130:
Engine bleed air used for anti-icing wing and
empennage leading edges, radome, and
engine inlet air ducts.
Electrical heat provides anti-icing for
propellers, windshield, and pitot tubes.

777:
Engine bleed air used to heat engine cowl
inlets. If leak is detected in Anti-Ice duct,
affected engine Anti-Ice valves close.
Wing Anti-Ice System provides bleed air to
three leading edge slats on each wing. Wing
Anti-Ice is only available in flight.

ANTI-ICE SYSTEM SCHEMATI

 The ice and rain protection system enables

operation in icing conditions and heavy rain.
For anti-icing, critical areas of the aircraft
are protected by hot air or electrical heating.

 Hot air from the pneumatic system is

provided for the anti-icing of the three
outboard leading edge slats of each wing.

HP

ENGINE
ENGINE ANTI
ANTI ICE
ICE VALVE
VALVE

Each engine air intake is anti- iced by an independent air bleed from the high
pressure compressor.
The air is supplied through the engine anti ice valve.
Note : In the event of an electrical power supply failure, this valve will automatically open.

Electrical heating is provided

for :
- windshields anti-icing and
cockpit side windows defogging,

When the electrical system is

powered, the water waste drain
masts are also electrically heated.
Note : On the ground the heat is
reduced to prevent injury to ground
personnel.

The ice detection

system (if installed)
consists of two
separate ice
detectors located
on the forward
lower section of the
fuselage.
An external visual
ice indicator with an
integrated light is
installed between
the two
windshields.

All the ice and rain protection controls are located on the overhead
panel.
The crew manages:
- Wing and engine anti-ice valves through the ANTI ICE control panel,
- All the electrical heating system by the PROBE/WINDOW HEAT

Electric wipers are provided for

the windshields.
They are operated at slow or
fast speed through the WIPER
selector located on the WIPER
panels.
The maximum speed with the
wipers in use is 230 knots.

References
http
://www.aopa.org/asf/publications/sa11.pdf#sear
ch=%22anti-icing%20systems%20aircraft%22
http://www.newpiper.com/promo/PIIPS/images/PIIP
SPropSlingerRing.jpg
http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/c-130.htm
http://www.airs-icing.org/AIRS_II/AIAAReno20
06/AIAA-2006-206-739.pdf#search=%22transport
%20ice%20%22in%20flight%22%22
www.p2pays.org/ref/07/06047.pdf
Ice Pictures
http://www.idiny.com/eidi.html

Flight Management
System (FMS)

FLIGHT MANGAGEMENT SYSTEM

Modern aircraft are filled with the latest
technology.
Technology which greatly reduces
workload if the systems are understood
and used properly.
The heart of all these systems is the FMS.
The FMS works to integrate the
information from aircraft navigation,
performance, and flight parameters to
provide consolidated navigation and auto
flight control which maximizes aircraft
and route efficiency.

What is FMS?
FMS is stand for Flight Management System
(FMS) is a specialized computer system that
automates a wide variety of in-flight tasks.
FMS acts as the brain of the aircraft
navigation system.

FMS Components
From the cockpit, the FMS is
normally controlled through a
Control Display Unit (CDU) which
incorporates a small screen and
keyboard.
The FMS sends the flight plan for
display on the EFIS, Navigation
Display (ND)

A typical FMS consists of:

Flight Management
Computer
Control Display Unit

Control Display Unit

CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)

HOW IT WORKS
The Flight Management Computer is supplied
with information from:

Navigation systems
Inertial reference system
Air data computer
Engine and system status
Aircraft specific performance database
Route, procedure and terrain database
EGPWS
TCAS
Datalink
Pilot inputs

It analyzes these inputs and continually

reevaluates changing parameters to provide the
autopilot, flight director, and auto-throttles with
commands which optimize all aspects of a flight.

 The Flight Management System (FMS) can

be thought of as the brain of the aircraft
navigation system.
Which assists pilots in navigation and flight
preparation to compute the most
efficient flight in fuel and time savings
and automatically navigate the aircraft.
It calculates performance data and the
most fuel-efficient route to be flown
based on typical aircraft parameters such
as weight, cruise altitude and actual
aircraft position, regardless of
weather conditions.

FMS Components

Control Display Unit

Navigation Display

FMS database
FMS Contains two types database which
are:
NAVIGATION DATABASE
PERFORMANCE DATABASE

The flight plan is generally determined on

the ground, before departure either by
the flight dispatcher for airliners.
It is entered into the FMS either by typing
it in, selecting it from a saved library of
common routes (Company Routes) or via
an datalink with the airline dispatch

FMS navigation database

All FMS contain a navigation database.
The navigation database contains the elements
from which the flight plan is constructed.
Navigation Database include
Waypoints,
Airways (highways in the sky)
Radio navigation aids (DME,VOR,ILS)

(Distance Measuring
Equipment, VHF Omni Directional Range, Instrument Landing
System)

Airports (Runways), Holding patterns

And a variety of other related information

 The flight plan is generally

determined on the ground, before
departure either by the flight
dispatcher for airliners.
It is entered into the FMS either by
typing it in, selecting it from a saved
library of common routes (Company
Routes) or via an datalink with the
airline dispatch center.

FMS performance database

During preflight, other information
relevant to managing the flight plan is
entered.
This can include performance information
such as
Maximum take-off weight,
Fuel weight
Center of gravity.
It will include altitudes including the initial
cruise altitude.

Flight Management Computer Input/output

WHAT IT DOES
The FMS is capable of :
Calculating optimum rate of climb/descent,
altitude, power setting.
Controlling the aircraft to meet these
optimum parameters through autopilot and
auto-throttle.
Guiding pilot controlled flight path through a
flight director, and target speed and engine
setting bugs.
Cross referencing multiple navigation
sources to continually update position.
Automatically tuning en-route
Alerting pilots of systems status and
malfunctions.

FMS Operation
Pilot key in input route information to
CDU of FMS
The navigation and aircraft performance
database must be verified.
Routing must be confirmed accurate and
correct and any ATC changes to expected
routing must be entered manually.
The pilot becomes a manager of this
sophisticated system, monitoring
progress and updating or changing
parameters as necessary.

 The pilot must initialize and program the FMS

with relevant route information.
The navigation and aircraft performance
database must be verified as current and correct.
(performance must reflect the specific aircraft)
An initial position must be entered. (Lat and
Long)
The required route must be entered. This can
include specific departure, en-route, arrival, and
approach procedures. (manually entered or
previously stored)
Routing must be confirmed accurate and correct
and any ATC changes to expected routing must
be entered manually en-route.
The pilot becomes a manager of this
sophisticated system, monitoring progress and
updating or changing parameters as necessary.

FMS Advantages
FMS are designed to :
Improve Navigation
Aid Fuel Efficiency
Reduce Crew Workload
More Accurate

FMS Advantages
FMS are designed to:
Navigation
A principal task of the FMS is to determine the
aircraft's position and the accuracy of that position.
Given the flight plan and the aircraft's position, the
FMS calculates the course to follow.
Autopilot can be set to follow the course.

Aid Fuel Efficiency

It calculates performance data and the most fuelefficient route to be flown based on typical
aircraft parameters such as weight, cruise
altitude and actual aircraft position,
regardless of weather conditions.

FMS Advantages
Reduce Crew Workload
Allows pilots more time to analyze and
make decisions. (drink coffee too)

More Accurate.
Computer generated efficiency profiles are
more accurate.
Navigation accuracy is improved through
integration and cross referencing of multiple
sources.

FMS Disadvantages
Error Data Entry
Reliant on pilot input.
There is potential of misinterpretation or
erroneous data entry.

Loss of situational awareness

Loss of situational awareness. Pilots may
become so involved in operating and
monitoring the system that they forget to
look outside.

Expensive.

Question Bank
1. a) Describe about FMS?
b) Explain advantages and
disadvantages of
FMS

Airplane Navigational Tools

History
In 1921 the first experimental night flight
was tried out using bonfires .
Early air traffic controllers began using
flags and lights to signal to pilots
1920s airports begin to use lights to
show position of landing field
1930 - Cleveland, Ohio becomes the first
city to use a radio-equipped control tower.

Forms of navigation include:

Celestial Navigation using the stars, sun,
and planets. Oldest form of navigation
Pilotage pilot uses landmarks to
determine position
Dead reckoning pilot determines position
using speed, time, direction, and
destination
Radio Navigation use of high tech
instruments to determine position by use
of radio waves

Magnetic Compass
Everything that flies has a
magnetic compass
mounted to the windshield
It can be used almost
anywhere in the world
Its the most reliable thing
in the aircraft, uses no
power or technology

Visual Omni Range

(VOR)

Being used since the 1950s

Operated by the FAA (Federal Aviation
Administration )
VOR signal displays aircrafts position
relative to specific station
Uses thousands of radio transmitters
located throughout U.S. and the world
Aircraft must be within receiving range

VOR Indicator

VOR always points away from the

station
A. Rotating Course Card,
calibrated from 0 to 360
B. Omni Bearing Selector knob (OBS), manually rotates course card
C. Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) needle swings left or right to show which way to turn
to return to course entered
D. The TO-FROM indicator. Arrow points up when flying to VOR station and down when
flying away from it. Red flag means out of range.

Distance Measuring
Equipment
(DME)

Allows the pilot to measure their

distance from station
Typically collocated with VOR station
Displays distance, ground speed,
and time to reach station
Can also be paired with a TACAN
station
Slant Range error upon approach of

Aircraft course and DME

indicator

A typical VOR/DME ground

station

Automatic Direction Finder

(ADF)
Uses low frequency signals
When frequency is set to proper
station, the needle will point
exactly to the station
Non directional beacon (NBD)
stations broadcast the signal
threw the sky

ADF Indicator

Radar
Stands for Radio Detection and
Ranging
Uses electromagnetic waves which
are transmitted to the ground to
determine altitude, direction, range,
and speed
Over 90% of the U.S. airspace is
covered by radar and often by
multiple radar systems
Frequently used in approach and
landing, especially in low-visibility

Functions of Radar
RADAR is a method of using
electromagnetic waves to remote-sense
the position, velocity and identifying
characteristics of targets.

History of Radar
Radar was developed for military purposes
during W. W. II.
The British and US Military used radar to
locate ships and airplanes.

Today, radar is an essential tool for

predicting and analyzing the weather

 Today RADAR is extremely important in civil aviation.

It is used by ATC to monitor and control numbers of aircrafts
in airspace as well as by pilot for weather warning and
navigation.
Radar is an object detection system that uses
electromagnetic waves to identify the range, altitude,
direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as
aircraft &ships.
Radar uses include:

Air traffic control:

Precision approach and landing guidance to
aircraft.
Weather Forecasting / Severe weather detection
Measuring ocean surface waves
Police detection of speeding traffic
Satellite

Types of RADAR

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

HOW SSR works
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
transmits an interrogation signal which is
received by the target aircraft.
The aircraft transponder sends back a
coded reply to the ground radar
equipment.
From the coded signal, information of the
aircrafts call sign, altitude, speed and
destination.
SSR requires an aircraft to be fitted with
transmitter/receiver called as

How SSR Works?

The ground secondary radar transmits 1030MHz signal.
The aircraft radar receives on 1030MHz and transmits
back 0n 1090MHz.
The transponder reply is more powerful than the
reflected radar signal allowing for far greater range.
(250nm).

Secondary Radar Display

What appear on
secondary radar
display?
Aircraft Identity.
Altitude
Speed
Direction/Destinatio
n

Advantages of SSR
Requires much less transmitting power to
provide coverage up to 200 to 250NM.
(nautical mile)
Provides more information: aircrafts
identity (its code & call sign), indicates
aircrafts altitude, speed & destination.
Reply signal is much stronger as it does
not rely on returning reflected signals.

Transponders
Little box on an aircraft used to help
make the aircraft more visible as a
radar target
When a radar beam hits an aircraft it
is reflected back to its origin so the
FAA can pin point its exact location.
The transponder generates a very
powerful return pulse, making the
aircraft easier to see

Transponders

ATCs view of a radar

screen

Global Positioning System

(GPS)
Space based navigational aid
Fast and accurate giving
information such as speed,
position, and course information
Gives runway lengths
Aircraft can be plotted within a
few feet

What is GPS?
Satellite based navigation system.
Based on a constellation of about 24
satellites
Developed by the United States
Department of Defense (DOD)
Can provide accurate
positioning 24 hours a day,
anywhere in the world.
No subscription fees or setup
charges to use GPS.
GPS satellites also called
NAVSTAR, the official U.S. DOD
name for GPS

Structure

Distance Between Receivers Position &

the GPS Satellites
By measuring the amount of time taken
by radio signal (the GPS signal) to travel
from the satellite to the receiver.
Radio waves travel at the speed of light,
i.e. about 186,000 miles per second.
The distance from the satellite to the
receiver can be determined by the
formula distance = speed x time.

GPS Error Budget

Different errors can cause a deviation
of+/- 50 -100meters from the actual
GPS receiver position.
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
Speed of GPS signal is affected by atmosphere
Which cause a deviation of 0 to 30 m. from the actual
position of receiver.

Other Navigational
Aids
OMEGA first truly global radio
navigation system for aircraft
Decca low frequency range
developed during WWII

Review Questions
1. What type of navigation uses landmarks
to determine position?
2. What the most reliable thing in the
aircraft?
3. Does the VOR point towards or away
from the station?
4. ADF uses what frequency signals?
5. What does Radar stand for? Explain how
it help for aviation.
6. What navigational aid gives runway
lengths?

References
http://gaservingamerica.org/how_wor
k/work_navigation.htm
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/h
eadquarters_offices/ato/service_units
/techops/navservices/history/
http://
www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/G
overnment_Role/landing_nav/POL14.h
tm

Communication and
Navigational System

Antenna
An antenna is a device which provides means for
radiating or receiving radio waves.
In communication link, the transmitter is connected
through a cable to one antenna, the signal is radiated
to another antenna, and then passes through another
cable to the receiver.
Communication between aircraft and airfields must use
free space propagation, as do radar and navigation
systems.
Broadcast systems such as TV or radio can used one
transmitter to serve many receivers via a free space
link.

Illustration
Electromagnetic
Wave propagates
FREE SPACE
Tx line

Tx line

Transmitting
antenna

Receiving
antanna

Antenna as transition device

Wire Antennas

Printed Circuit
Antenna

Types of antenna
Array Antenna
Reflector
antenna

Aperture antennas

Antenna on Aircraft

Type and size of antenna varies with the different types of aircraft.
The location of antenna depends on the design of aircraft.

Discussion on
frequencies used for
aviation

Frequency Band
S

Band

Frequency

LF
MF
HF
VHF

3 0 300kHz
300kHz 3MHz
3 30MHz
30 300MHz

Frequency Band
The use of the various Radio Frequencies all over
the World is allocated by ITU (International
Telecommunications Union.
The Radio Frequencies are being used in various
field, amongst them include :
FM Radio Broadcast
Television Broadcast
Land Mobile Stations (Emergency, Business, and
Military)
Amateur Radio
Marine Communications
AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (e.g.VOR/DME,NDB)

VLF-Very Low Frequency

Can be used for communication with submerged
submarines and they have some use for this purpose
aboard aircraft.
VLF were very important to air navigation years ago,
but became increasingly less important as more
reliable systems operating at higher frequencies were
developed and became widely available.

HF-High Frequency
HF-High Frequency (3 30 MHz)
HF: This is the basic band for long-range
communications, mainly because its
transmissions are reflected from the
ionosphere.
HF1 = Typically used for Long-Range ATC
communications
HF2 = Back up to HF1. (frequently used to listen
to the BBC to overcome boredom on longer flights)

HF-High Frequency
HF undergoes the Skywave phenomena where
ionosphere refracts the HF radio waves and can be
utilized for medium and long range radio
communications,

HF transmissions are reflected from the

Disadvantage of HF
Efficiency of HF is affected by:
All kinds of electrical interference caused
by ionosphere disturbances such as
thunderstorms. This provides the typical
radio noise.
Other weather phenomena:
Sunlight
Season
Solar Activity

VHF: Very High Frequency

VHF-Very High Frequency (30 300MHz)
Normally, VHF between 100 to 200MHz are used
for ATC communications, emergency and
navigational aids (VOR, DME, ILS).

VHF1 = Used for ATC communications

VHF2 = Emergency frequency monitoring.
VHF3 = Typically used for Data transmissions
(ACARS).

Characteristics of VHF
Radios
The propagation characteristics of VHF are
optimized for short range communications.
The range varies depending the
atmospheric conditions but normally is
about 180.
nautical miles.
However it is more prone to blockage by
Land Features, buildings, and its lower
spectrum frequencies.

Specific Usage

VHF Voice communication Source

Carrier
118-121.4 MHz
Air Traffic Control
121.5 MHz

Emergency

121.6 121.9 MHz

Airport Ground
control

123.1 MHz

Search And Rescue

123.675-128.8 MHz

Air traffic control

128.825-132.0 MHz

En Route

132.05-135.975 MHz

Air traffic control

The use of VHF for Aeronautical

Communications in Malaysia
In Malaysia the use of VHF Radio Systems for
Aviation purposes are wholly owned by DCA
Malaysia and are stationed on various Hill
Stations owned by Telekom Malaysia

UHF: Ultra High Frequency

UHF-Ultra High Frequency (300MHz 3GHz)
UHF: similar to VHF, but is restricted mainly for
military aviation use.
In Malaysia, UHF is mostly used by Combat
Aircraft of the Royal Malaysian Air Force
(RMAF).
Other applications includes Navigations/Landing
Aids such as the Glide path component of the
ILS(Instrument Landing Systems).

UHF: Ultra High Frequency

UHF broadcasting was used outside Kuala
Lumpur and the Klang Valley by private TV
station TV3 in the late 80s with the
Government stations only transmitting in
VHF (Bands 1 and 3).
At current count, there are 4 distinct UHF
signals receivable by an analog TV set in
the Klang Vall, Channel 25 (8TV),
Channel 29 (TV3 UHF Transmission),
Channel 37 (NTV7) and Channel 39
(TV9). Channel 35 is usually allocated for
VCR,s, decoder units (i.e.the ASTRO and

Question
Names two types of two way
communication radios (frequencies)
used on an aircraft?
What are their purposes?
List the benefit of the new
communication system for
passengers.(broadband for surfing the
net,SMS,and phones.)

Benefit of the new communication system for

passengers

Some of the benefits of passengers are the

broadband, SMS, Phones, these are good to
keep business travelers well into their
schedules, this allows them to work while
they fly, and this alleviates the problems
once they land, they can track their flights,
know exactly when they will land, etc...

Onboard Communications
Radio is the choice of communications medium
for air to ground communications, but there are
requirements for considerable onboard
communications. such applications as voice
communications among flight crew members
between flight crew members and passengers.
This communication is provided by a system
called an interphone and usually works in
conjunction with an audio panel, which not only
provides the interphone function but switches
speakers and headphones between the various
communications and navigation systems aboard
the aircraft.

Audio
Panel

A number of audio sources in the aircraft that

the flight crew should monitor
Different transceivers for communication
Navigation equipment (for station identifier)
ADF, VOR, DME, MLS
Surveillance equipment TCAS
Method of selecting which navigation systems
will be heard on headphones/speaker
Use audio control panel

Example of a control panel

Basic Controls

Airspeed

The Airspeed Indicator measures the

speed of the airplane as it goes
through the air. On a day without any
wind, the indicated airspeed would be
the same as the speed of the airplane
going over the ground. However if the
plane is going into a headwind of 15
MPH at an indicated airspeed of 135
MPH, the ground speed would be 120
MPH. Likewise the plane had a 15 MPH
tail wind, the ground speed would be
150 MPH. The instrument operates with
Ram or impact air entering the pitot
tube. It also uses static air pressure in
the case as a reference for the ram air
pressure. The impact air pushes on a
diaphragm which moves the indicating
needle on the instrument face. The

ttitude Indicator
The Attitude Indicator, or sometimes
called the, Artificial Horizon, is a
vacuum driven gyroscopic instrument.
It relays information to the pilot as to
the flight attitude of the plane, whether
it is climbing, descending, or banking.
The white line going across the face of
the instrument represents the horizon,
blue the sky, black, the ground. The
power for the instrument comes from
the suction through a closed system
generated by a vacuum pump. The air
flowing through the instrument case
moves vanes attached the gyroscope,
causing the gyroscope to spin and the
instrument to operate.

Altimeter

The Altimeter is an aneroid

barometer which converts a
barometric pressure reading
measured in inches of mercury into
an altitude measured in feet. It
measures the altitude of the aircraft
above sea level when the altimeter is
set to the current barometric
pressure setting. If the elevation of
an airport is 670 feet above sea
level, when set correctly, the
altimeter should read 670 feet while
the airplane is still on the ground. As
the plane climbs the decreasing
pressure of the static air relaxes a
bellows in the instrument. When the
bellows moves, a linkage connected
to the hands of the instrument

Turn Coordinator
The Turn Coordinator is actually two
instruments in one. The miniature airplane
is an electrically driven gyroscope that
initially measures the rate of roll of a bank.
Once the bank is stabilized, the instrument
measures rate of turn of a bank. The two
white marks below the wingtips of the
airplane are timing marks. When the
wingtip is aligned with the either mark,
depending on the direction of the bank, it
will take 2 minutes to make a complete 360
degree turn. The black ball below the
miniature airplane is in a fluid filled tube
called and inclinometer. It is very much like
a common carpenters level. The only power
driving this portion of the instrument is
centrifugal force acting on the airplane
during a turn. When the ball stays in the
middle during a bank, the turn is
coordinated. If the ball falls to the side of

Directional Gyro
The Directional Gyro is another vacuum
driven gyroscope. It looks much like a
compass. A major difference it has with the
compass is that it doesnt rely on the
earths magnetic field to operate. When
the gyroscope is spinning it has a principle
of remaining rigid in space. That is the
spinning wheel will resist any change in
position. The DG takes advantage of that
principle. When an airplane is turning the
gyroscope will resist moving with the turn.
The energy used to resist the turn instead
moves the compass card which will
indicate the heading of the airplane. DGs
are used because they are not effected by
magnetic disturbances or have turning
errors inherent to the compass. They are
susceptible to gyroscopic precession which
are errors due to the mechanical friction
imposed on the spinning gyroscope.

Vertical Speed Indicator

The Vertical Speed Indicator measures
the speed at which the plane climbs or
descends. Like the altimeter, it measures
the pressure changes of the static air. Where
the altimeter traps the static air in the case
to maintain the indicated altitude, the VSI
allows the pressurized air in or out of the
instrument at a controlled rate. The rate the
air comes in or goes out of the instrument is
translated into feet per minute. On the
ground high static pressure is inside the
instrument. As the plane climbs, the high
pressure leaks out a calibrated hole in a
bellows. As the bellows contracts, a linkage
moves the indicator hand upward showing a
climb. As the plane descends, the bellows
expands by the intake of the higher static
pressure. The indicating hands then show a
descent. The rate the air moves in or out of

Cockpit Displays

New Plane

Historic
Plane

Newer Plane

Newer
Plane

Navigation Aides

VOR
Visual Omni Range is
and instrument that
receives high
frequency radio
signals from a
transmitting station.

DME
Distance Measuring
Equipment is an instrument
that gives information on
distance and direction to
and from a station.

ADF

Automatic Direction finder uses low frequency signals

to which a bearing is set and a needle points to that
direction.

THE
END

1. Name 3 basic instruments.

2. What does the attitude indicator tell?
3. What does the turn coordinator tell?
4. What does VOR stand for? Explain working in details
5. What kind of frequency does ADF use?
6. Explain in details the function of DME.
7. What does a vertical speed indicator show?
8. Airspeed is measured in ______?