HONORS GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Gen Chem 1
Braxton McKinney

HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND WATER

Selected
Properties

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Water

Boiling point

-253 Degrees
Celsius

-183 Degrees
Celsius

100 Degrees
Celsius

State at room
temperature

Gas

Gas

Liquid

Flammability

Explosive

Necessary for
Combustion

Used to extinguish
flame

CHEMICAL BONDS
Compounds are composed of atoms held together by chemical
bonds.
Chemical bonds result from the attractions between charged
particles (mainly electrons) that compose atoms.
Chemical bonds are broadly classified into two types:
Ionic
Covalent

IONIC BONDS
Occur between metals and nonmetals.
Involve a transfer of electrons from the metal atom to the nonmetal
atom.
The metal atom becomes a cation while the nonmetal atom becomes an anion

Because they are oppositely charged ions, they attract one another by
electrostatic forces and form the ionic bond.
In the solid phase, the ionic compound is composed of a lattice --- a
regular three dimensional array --- of alternating cations and anions.
Any compound that conducts an electric current when melted.
High melting/boiling points
Compounds with an electronegativity difference > 1.7

COVALENT BONDS
Covalent

bods occur between two or more nonmetals. The

nonmetals share electrons between them, composing a molecule.
AKA Molecular compounds.
Potential energy determines if covalent bonding is favorable.
Coulombs Law:
E = (2.31 X 10-19 J * nm

()

Q = ionic charges
r = distance between ion centers

DIPOLE MOVEMENT
Dipole two separate areas of charge.
Property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be
represented by a center of positive charge and a center of
negative charge.
Electrostatic
Potential Map

Blue = e- poor
Red = e- rich

DIPOLE MOMENT WATER,

Use an arrow to
represent a dipole
moment.
Point to the
negative charge
center with the tail
indicating the
positive charge
center.

DIPOLE MOMENT AMMONIA,

NO NET DIPOLE MOMENT Dipoles cancel!

SAMPLE PROBLEM
The chemical bonds of the molecules shown below represent (from left to right):

A) Covalent, polar covalent, & ionic bonds

B) Ionic, covalent, & polar covalent bonds
C) Covalent, ionic, & polar covalent bonds
D) Polar covalent, ionic, & covalent bonds
E) Polar covalent, covalent, & ionic bonds

REPRESENTING COMPOUNDS:
CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND
MOLECULAR MODELS
A
compounds chemical formula indicates the elements present in the compound
and the relative number of atoms or ions of each.
Water is represented as
Sodium Chloride is represented as NaCl
Carbon tetrachloride is represented as

Three types of chemical formulas:

Empirical formula
Gives the relative number of atoms of each element in the compound

Molecular formula
Actual number of atoms of each element in the molecule of a compound.
For the greatest common factor is 2. The empirical formula is HO

Structural formula

TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND

MOLECULAR MODELS
They type of formula we use depends on how much we know
about the compound and how much we want to communicate.
A structural formula communicates the most information. An
empirical formula communicates the least.
A molecular model is a more accurate way to specify a compound.
Ball-and-stick molecular model represents atoms as balls and
chemical bonds as sticks.
The balls are typically color-coded to specific elements.

MOLECULAR MODELS (CONTINUED)

Space-filling molecular model, atoms fill the space between each
other to more closely represent a best estimate for how a
molecule might appear if scaled to visible size.

VIEW OF ELEMENTS AND

COMPOUNDS
Atomic

elements exist in nature with single atoms as their basic

units.
Diatomic molecules do not normally exist in nature with single
atoms as their basic unit; they exist as molecules bonded together.
There are seven diatomic elements and they are , , , , , , and .
and are polyatomic elements.

MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS AND IONIC

COMPOUNDS
Molecular

compounds are usually composed of two or more

covalently bonded nonmetals.
The basic units of molecular compounds are molecules composed
of the constituent atoms.
Water is composed of molecules

Ionic Compounds are composed of cations (usually a metal) and

anions (usually one or more nonmetals) bound together by ionic
bonds.
The basic unit of an ionic compound is the formula unit, the
smallest, electrically neutral collection of ions.

POLYATOMIC IONS
Many

common ionic compounds contain ions that are themselves

composed of a group of covalently bonded atoms with an overall
charge.
This group of charged species is called polyatomic ions.
contains and
contains and ^2-

IONIC COMPOUNDS: FORMULAS AND

NAMES
Summarizing Ionic Compound Formulas
Ionic compounds always contain positive and negative ions.
In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of cations must equal
the sum of the charges of the anions.
The formula of an ionic compound reflects the smallest whole-number
ratio of ions.

The charges of the representative elements can be predicted from

their group numbers.
The representative elements form multiple types of charges.
Hence, their charges cannot be predicted as in the case of most
representative elements.

NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds can be categorized into two types, depending on
the metal in the compound.
Type I: Metal forms only one type of ion.
Type II: Metal forms more than one type of ion.

Type I ionic compounds contain a metal who charge is invariant

from one compound to another when bonded with a nonmetal
anion.
The metal ion always has the same charge.

NAMING COMPOUNDS
Binary Compounds
Two components (elements)
Covalent and ionic compounds included.

Binary Ionic Compounds

Metal-Nonmetal

Binary Covalent Compounds

Nonmetal -Nonmetal

To name, it is the Name of the Cation (metal) + base name of

anion (nonmetal) +ide
KCl is Potassium Chloride

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the name of the ionic compound KBr?
A) Kay-bee-are
B) Potassium Bromine
C) Bromine Potasside
D) Potassium Bromide

NAMING TYPE II IONIC COMPOUNDS

The
metals charge must be specified for a given compound. The

proportion of metal cation to metal anion helps us determine the charge

on the metal ion.

Iron, for instance, forms a 2+ cation in some of its compounds and a 3+

catioin in others.
Metals of this type are often transistion metals.
FeS: Iron is +2 cation ()
: iron is a +3 cation ()

To name; Name of cation (metal) + Charge of metal in Roman numerals

in parentheses + base name of nonmetal +ide.

= Iron(II) Chloride

= Iron (III) Chloride

TRADITIONAL WAY OF NAMING TYPE

II IONIC COMPOUNDS
Higher

charge ic
Lower charge ous
= ferric ion
= ferrous ion
= ferric chloride
= ferrous chloride

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the name of the ionic compound CuBr?
A) Cooper bromide
B) Copper(I) bromide
C) Copper (II) bromide
D) Cupric bromide
E) Cuprous Bromide

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the name of the ionic compound AgI?
A) Silver(I) iodine
B) Silver (I) iodide
C) Silver iodide
D) Silver(II) Iodide
E) Silver(II) iodine
It is C and not B because silver has a constant charge, it does not vary from
compound to compound. So it is type I meaning that its just the name of the metal
+ base name of the nonmetal + ide.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What

is the chemical formula for iron(II) sulfide?

A) FeS

NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

CONTAINING POLYATOMIC IONS
Same

as other ionic compounds, just use the polyatomic name

instead of the anion name.
For example, is named according to its cation Sodium and its
polyatomic anion, nitrite
So its Sodium Nitrite.

COMMON POLYATOMIC IONS

OXYANIONS
Most poly atomic ions are oxyanions, anions containing oxygen and another
element.
Notice when a series of oxyanions contains different numbers of oxygen atoms,
they are named according to the number of oxygen atoms in the ion.
If there are two ions in a series:
The one with more oxygen atoms has the ending ate
The one with fewer has the ending ite.

For example:

NO3 is nitrate.

SO42 is sulfate.

NO2 is nitrite.

SO32 is sulfite

OXYANIONS (CONTINUED)
If there are more than two ions in the series then the prefixe is
hypo- meaning less than. And per- meaning more than are used.

ClO

hypochlorite

BrO

hypobromite

ClO2 chlorite

BrO2 bromite

ClO3 chlorate

BrO3 bromate

ClO4 perchlorate

BrO4 perbromate

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What

is the chemical formula for sodium hypobromite?

A) NaBrO

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What

is the name of the ionic compound ?

A) Sodium sulfate
B) Sodium sulfite
C) Sodium sulfoxide
D) 2 sodiums + 1 sufur + 4 oxygens

HYDRATED IONIC COMPOUNDS

Hydrates
are ionic compounds containing a specific number of

water molecules associated with each formula.

For example, the formula for Epsom salts is X . Its systematic name
is magnesium sulfate heptahydrate.
X is cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate.
Common Hydrate Prefixes
Hemi = tri = 3 hexa = 6
Mono = 1 tetra = 4 hepta = 7
Di = 2 penta = 5 octa = 8
Example, X is called calcium sulfate hemihydrate.

BINARY COVALENT COMPOUNDS

(TYPE III)
Formed between two nonmetals
The first element in the formula is named first, using the full element
name.
The second element is named as if it were an anion.
Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present.
The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element. It is
implied that there is only one if there is no other prefix.
The prefixes are the same as those used in naming hydrates.
Example, is Carbon dioxide

SAMPLE PROBLEM
What

is the name of the compound ?

A) Phosphor 5-chloride
B) Phosphorous penchloride
C) Phosphorous Pentachloride
D) Phosphorous chloride

ACIDS
Acids
are molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions () when

dissolved in water.
Acids are composed of hydrogen, usually written first in their
formulas, and one or more nonmetals, written second.
Sour taste
Dissolve many metals
Such as Zn, Fe, and Mg; but not Au, Ag, or Pt.

Formulas generally start with H

E.g., HCL

HCl is a molecular compound that, when dissolved in water, forms

and ions, where aqueous (aq) means dissolved in water

ACIDS (CONTINUED)
Binary acids have cation and nonmetal anion.
Oxyacids have cation and polyatomic anion.
Naming Binary Acids

Write a hydro- prefix

Follow with the nonmetal base name.
Add ic
Write the word acid at the end of the name.
HCL
Chloride = Hydrochloric acid

NAMING OXYACIDS
If the polyatomic ion name ends in ate, change ending to ic.
If the polyatomic ion name ends in ite, change ending to ous.
Write the word acid at the end of all names.

WRITING FORMULAS FOR ACIDS

When

the name ends in acid, the formula starts with H followed by

an anion.
Write the formula as if it is ionic, even though it is molar
Hydro- prefix means it is binary acid; no prefix means it is an
oxyacid.
Certain pollutants, such as NO, , , and , form acids when mixed
with water, resulting in acidic rainwater.
Acid rain can fall or flow into lakes and streams; making these
bodies of water more acidic.

CONCEPTUAL PLAN
We now have all the tools to count the number of atoms in a
sample of an element by weighing it.
First, we obtain the mass of the mass of the sample
Then, we convert it to the amount in moles using the elements molar
mass.
Finally, we convert it to the number of atoms using Avogadros number.

The conceptual plan for these kinds of calculations takes the

following form:
g element

mol element

number of atoms

FORMULA MASS
The mass of an individual molecule or formula unit.
Also known as molecular weight.

Sum of the masses of the atoms in a single molecule or formula

unit.
Whole = sum of the parts

MOLAR MASS OF COMPOUNDS

The molar mass of a compound --- the mass, in grams, of 1 mol of its molecules or
formula units --- is numerically equivalent to its formula mass with units of g/mol.

The relative masses of molecules can be calculated from atomic masses:

formula mass = 1 molecule of H2O = 2(1.01 amu H) + 16.00 amu O =
18.02 amu
1 mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H and 1 mole
of O:
molar mass = 1 mole H2O
= 2mol(1.01 g/1 mol H) + 1mol(16.00 g/1 mol O) = 18.02 g/1 mol H 2O
So the molar mass of H2O is 18.02 g/mole.
Molar mass = formula mass (in g/mole)

MASS PERCENT
Percentage of an atom in a molecule by mass
Also called weight percent
Mass % =

X 100

COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
A chemical formula , in combination with the molar masses of its
constituent elements, indicates the relative quantities of each
element in a compound.
Percentage by mass of each element in a compound. Can be
determined from
The formula of the compound
The experimental mass analysis of the compound.

The percentages may not always total 100% due to rounding

USING MOLAR MASS TO COUNT

MOLECULES BY WEIGHING
Molar mass in combination with Avogadros number can be used to
determine the number of atoms in a given mass of an element.
Use molar mass to convert to the amount in moles. Then use
Avogadros number to convert to number of molecules.

CONVERSION FACTORS FROM

CHEMICAL FORMULAS
Chemical

formulas show the relationship between numbers of

atoms and molecules.
Or moles of atoms and molecules
70.90 g Cl : 120.90 g
1 mol Cl : 2 mol

These relationships can be used to determine the amounts of

constituent elements and molecules.
Like percent composition

DETERMINING A CHEMICAL FORMULA

FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Empirical formula
Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms or moles of elements in a
compound, not a ratio of masses.
Can be determined from elemental analysis.
Percent composition.
Masses of elements formed when a compound is decomposed, or that react
together to form a compound.

FINDING AN EMPIRICAL FORMULA

1) Convert the percentages to grams.
1) Assume you start with 100g of the compound
2) Skip if its already in grams.

2) Convert grams to moles.

1) Use the molar mass of each element

3) Write a pseudoformula using moles as subscripts.

4) Divide all by the smallest number of moles.
1) If the result is within 0.1 of a whole number, round to the whole number.

5) Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers.

1) If ratio is .5 multiply all by 2
2) Skip if ratios are already whole numbers.

MOLECULAR FORMULAS FOR

COMPOUNDS
The

molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the empirical

formula.
To determine the molecular formula, you need to know the
empirical formula and the molar mass of the compound.
n =

SAMPLE PROBLEM
A white powder is analyzed and found to contain 43.64% P and
56.36% O by mass. The compound has a molar mass of 283.88
g/mol. What are the compounds empirical and molecular formulas?

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
A
common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a known
mass of compound and weigh the amounts of products.
This is generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, and O.

By knowing the mass of the products and composition of the

constituent element in the product, the original amount of
constituent element can be determined.
All the original C forms , the original H forms and the original mass of
O is found by subtraction.

Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original

compound have been determined, the empirical formula can be
found.

CALCULATING MASS PERCENT

Sample with unknown formula containing C, H, and N.
Initial sample mass = 0.1156 g
Mass of produced = 0.1638 g
Mass of produced = 0.1676 g
0.1638 g X = 0.04470 g C Mass % of C = X 100 = 38.67 % C
0.1676 g X = 0.01875 g H Mass % of H = X 100 = 16.22 % H
Mass % of C = 38.67%

Mass % of H = 16.22% H

Mass % of N = 100% - 38.67% - 16.22% = 45.11%

Next Slide

Continued to

CHEMICAL FORMULAS
Assume
100.0 g of sample, find n of each atom.

Mass % of C = 38.67% C
38.67 g C x = 3.220 mol C
Mass % of H = 16.22% H
16.22 g H x = 16.09 mol H
Mass % of N = 45.11% N
45.11 g N x = 3.220 mol N

CHEMICAL FORMULAS (CONTINUED)

Find

the smallest whole number of ratio of atoms to determine

chemical formula.
C: 3.220/3.220 = 1.00 = 1
H: 16.09/3.220 = 4.997 = 5
N: 3.220/3.220 = 1.00 = 1
=

SAMPLE PROBLEM
If
1 mole of the unknown compound with an empirical formula of
has a mass of 93 g, what is the molecular formula?

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Reactions involve chemical changes in matter resulting in new
substances.
Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of atoms to
produce new molecules.
Elements are not transmuted during a reaction.

Chemical Equations
Shorthand way of describing a reaction.
Provide information about the reaction
Formulas of reactants and products.
States of reactants and products
Relative number of reactant and product molecules that are required can be
used to determine weights of reactants used and products that can be made.

COMBUSTION OF METHANE
Methane

gas burns to produce carbon dioxide gas and gaseous

water.
Whenever something burns it combines with
+
+

If you look closely you should immediately spot a problem.

COMBUSTION OF METHANE
(CONTINUED)
As well as:

To correct these we must balance the equation by changing the

coefficients, not the subscripts.
+

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Two types of compounds: Organic (originate from living things) and
inorganic (Originate from the earth)
Organic were easily decomposed but couldnt be made in lab
Inorganic compounds were difficult to decompose but could be
synthesized.
Now Organic compounds are commonly made in the lab.
Organic compounds are mainly made of C and H, but O, N, P, S,
and other trace amounts of other elements.
The key element in organic chemistry is carbon.

CARBON BONDING
Carbon atoms bond almost exclusively covalently.
Compounds with ionic boding C are generally inorganic

When C bonds, it forms four covalent bonds, including single,

double, and triple bonds.
It is unique in that it can bond with itself and form limitless chains
of C atoms, both straight and branched, as well as rings.

HYDROCARBONS
Organic compounds can be categorized into two types: hydrocarbons
and functionalized hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and
hydrogen. They usually compose fuels such as oil, gasoline, liquid
propane gas, and natural gas.
Naming Hydrocarbons
Those containing only single bonds are called alkanes.
Double or triple bonds are alkenes and alkynes.
Base names for a number of hydrocarbons are:
1
6

Meth- 2 ethHex-7 hept-

3 prop8 oct-

4 but-

5 pent-

9 non-

10 dec-

FUNCTIONALIZED HYDROCARBONS
A group of organic compounds with the same functional group
forms a family.

ALKANES - NOMENCLATURE
The name of every organic molecule has 3 parts:
The parent name indicates the number of carbons in the longest
continuous chain.
The suffix indicates what functional group is present.
The prefix tells us the identity, location, and number of substituents
attached to the the carbon chain.
Parent or the
longest
straight
carbon chain

ALKANES NOMENCLATURE
SUFFIX
Alkane Chain

# Carbons

Name

Methane

Ethane

Propane

Butane

Pentane

Hexane

Heptane

Octane

Nonane

10

Decane

ALKANES NOMENCLATURE
(1)Find the parent carbon chain and add the suffix, It does not
matter if the chain is straight or if it bends.
If there are two chains of equal length, pick the chain with more
substituents.
(2) Number the atoms in the carbon chain to give the first
substituent the lowest number. If the first substituent is the same
distance from both ends, number the chain to give the second
substituent the lower number.
When numbering a carbon chain results in the same number of
either end of the chain, assign the lower number alphabetically to
the first substituent.
(3) Name and number the substituents.
If two or more identical substituents are bonded to the longest chain,

ALKANES NOMENCLATURE
(4) Combine substituent names and numbers + parent and suffix.
Separate numbers by commas and separate numbers from letters
using hyphens.

Cycloalkanes are named using similar rules but the prefix cycloimmediately precedes the name of the parent.
(1) Find the parent cycloalkane.
(2) Name and number the substituents. No number is needed to
indicate the location of a single substituent. For rings with more
than one substituent, begin numbering at one substituent and
proceed around the ring to give the second substituent the lowest
number.

BIG THANKS AND CREDIT GIVEN TO:

Luisa Whittaker-Brooks of the University of Utah
Pearson Education