Analyzing and Improving

Teaching
Created by:
Dian Septiani (3415140726)
Novita Nurfajriani (3415140725)
Putri Rahmawati ( 3415140718)

Analyzing and Improving

Teaching
Of the research on effective
teaching and five basic ways of
analyzing teaching:
Teacher
interactions

Teacher styles
Teacher
characteristics

Teacher effects

Teacher
contexts

Teacher Styles
Viewed

as a broad dimension or
personality type that:
Encompasses teacher stance
Pattern of behavior
Mode of perfomance
Attitude toward self
And others

Teacher

style as an expressive aspect

of teaching and as an intrumental
aspect
Aspects of teaching style dictated by
personality
and
by
appropriate
training as a beginning teacher

Research on Teacher
Styles

Lippit and White Laid develop an

instrumen for describing the social
atmosphere of childrens clubs and for
quantifying the effects group and
individual behaviour
The result have been generalized in
numerous
research
studies
and
textbooks on teaching
The classic study used classifications of
authoritarian, democratic, and laissezfaire style

Ned

Flanders and his associates

develop an instrument for quantifying
verbal
communication
in
the
classroom
Flanders found that students in the
indirect classrooms learned more and
exhibited more constructive and
independent attitudes than student in
the direct classroom

Teacher Interaction
An

approach to the study of the

teacher behaviour is based on
systematic
observation
of
teacher-student
interaction
in the classroom
Verbal
Communication

Nonvebal
Communication

Verbal Communication

Arno Bellack and Colleagues analyzed

the linguistic behavior of teachers and
students in the classroom
Classroom activities are carried out in
large part by verbal interaction between
students and teachers; few classroom
activities can be carried out without the
use of language
Verbal communication focused on
language as the main instrument of
communication in teaching

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal
behavior
in
the
classroom servers five teacher
functions:
1.Providing information
2.Regulating interactions
3.Expressing intimacy
4.Exercising social control
5.Facilitating goals

Nonverbal

communication
operates as a silent languange
that influences the process
Ten specific nonverbal behaviors:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Smiles or frowns
Eye contact
Head nods
Gestures
Dress

6. Interaction distance
7. Touch
8. Body movemont
9. Posture
10.Seating arrangemen

Teacher Expectations
Teacher

communicate
their
expectations of students through
verbal and nonverbal cues
It is well established that these
expectation affect the interaction
between teachers and students and,
eventually, the perfomance of
students
In many cases teacher expectations
become self-fulfilling prophecies

The

most effective teacher is realistic

about the differences between high and
low achievers
The teacher who develops a rigid or
stereotyped perception of students is
likely to have a harmful effect on them
The teacher who understands that
differences exist and adapts realistic
methods and content accordingly will
have the most possitive effect on
students

Teacher Characteristic

Teacher characteristic such as teacher

traits, teacher personality, teacher
performance, or teacher methods
Teacher characteristic may be suitable
for
a
particular
study,
the
characteristic
cannot
always
be
compared with another study

Research on Teacher
Characteristic
The eighteen teacher characteristics
were defined in detail and further
grouped into three patterns of
succesfull versus unsuccessful teacher:
1. Pattern X : understanding, friendly,
responsive, versus aloof, egocentric
2. Pattern Y : responsible, businesslike,
systematic,
versus
evading,
unplanned, slipshod
3. Pattern Z : stimulating, imaginative,
original, versus dull, routine

Teacher Effects
Teacher behavior research has shown that
teacher behaviors, as well as specific
teaching principles and methods, make a
difference
with
regard
to
student
achievement
The five teacher processes showed the
strongest correlation to positive outcomes:
1. Clarity
2. Variability
3. Enthuasiasm
4. Task orientation
5. Student opportunity to learn

The six remaining processes were

classified as promising:
1.Use of student ideas
2.Justified criticism
3.Use of structuring comments
4.Appropriate questions in terms of
lower and higher cognitive level
5.Probing or encouraging student
elaboration,
and
challenging
instructional materials

Only two behaviours processes

consistenly
correlated
with
student achievement:
1.Task orientaion
2.Opportunity to learn
Valuable study on how teacher
processes relate to student
products

The Gage Model

He
identified
four
clusters
of
behaviours that show a strong
relationship to student outcomes:
1.Teacher indirectness
2.Teacher praise
3.Teacher acceptance
4.Teacher criticism
In effect, the four clusters suggest
the traditional notion of a democrayic
or
warm
teacher
(a
model
emphasized for severa decades)

The Good and Brophy

Model

Focus

on basic principles of
teaching,
but
not
teacher
behaviors or characteristic
Teachers today are looking more
for principles of teaching than for
prescriptions

The Evertson-Emmer
Model

Similar to that of Good and Brophy

The models are similar in three ways:
1. Teacher effectiveness is associated
with specific teaching principles and
method
2. Organization and management of
instructional activities is stressed
3. Findings and conclusions are based
primarily on process-product studies
Effectiveness is identified in terms of
raising studen achievement scores

The Master Teacher

Criteria

for recognition of a master teacher

1. Knowledge of subject
2. Encourages student achievement through positive
reinforcement
3. Uses a variety of strategies and materials to meet the need
of all students
4. Maintains an organized and diciplined classroom activities
5. Stimulates students active participation in clasroom
activities
6. Maximizes student instruction time
7. High expectations of students performance
8. Frequently monitors student progress and provides feedback
regarding performance

Cautions and Crticisms

These

product-oriented researches
have accomplished is to summarized
what we have known for a long time,
but often passed on in the form of
tips for teachers or practical
suggestions that were once criticized
by researchers confirm as being recipe
oriented. These researchers confirm
the basic principles and methods of
experienced teachers.

Teacher Contexts: New Research,

New Paradigms
An

alternative for understanding the

nature of teaching has evolved-one
that combines teaching and learning
process, incorporates holistic practics,
and goes beyond what teachers and
students appear to be doing to inquire
about what they are thinking.

Metaphors
Metaphors

are used to explain or

interpret reality. Metaphors can
also be conseptualized in the
literature of sociology to include
ideas, values, and behaviors that
derive in part from a persons
position within the political and
economic order.

Stories
Stories

have an important social or

psychological meaning. Storis of
teachers allow us to see cnnections
between the pracice of teaching and
he human side of teaching. The stories
of individual teachers allow us to see
their knowledge and skills enacted in
the real world of cllassrooms, and lead
us to appreciate their etinal and moral
encounters with the lives of the people
they teach.

The

Biographies and
Autobiographies

essence of an autobiography is
that it provides an opportunity for
people to convey what they know and
have been doing for years, and what is
inside their heads, unshaped by others.
Biography is ultimately filtered and
interpreted by a second party, the
autobiography permits the author to
present the information in a personal
way on his or her own terms.

The Expert Teacher

Expert

teachers see teh big picture,

understand human behavior and
relationships, perform in an easy and
fluid manner, have their own style or
way of doing tings, and set up routines
or take precautionary steps to avoid
touble or potential problems in their
classroms.

Voice
The

notion of voice sums up the new

linguistic tools for decribing what
teachers do, how they do it, and what
they think when they are teaching.
Voice corresponds with such term as
the teacherss perspective, teachrss
frame of reference, or getting into the
teachers head

 To

Reconceptualizing
Teaching

argue that good teaching boils down

to a set of prespective behaviors,
methods, or proficiency levels, that
teachers mst follow a new researchbased teaching plan or evaluation
system, or that decisions about teacher
accountability can be assessed in terms
of stdents passing some standardized
or multiplechoice test is to miss the
human
aspect
o
teaching-the
essence of what teaching is all about

The Need for Humanistic

Teaching
Students

need to be encouraged and

nurtured by their teachers, especially when
they are young. They are dependent on
approval from significant adults-first their
parents, then their teachers.

Teachers

need to help adolescents stablish

a source for self-esteem by focusing on
their
strenghts,
supporting
them,
discouraging negative self-talk and helping
them take control of their lives in context
their own culture and values.

Moral and civic virtues

Teaching

should be committed to a higher purpose,

not just teaching knowledge for passing a
tandardized test; a humanisic-moral purpose
designed for academic excellence as well as
personel and social responsibility.
Such teaching encourages students to ask why?
as opposed to merely giving the right answer.
The question should start with family conversation
and then be nurtured in school during the formative
years of learning so that students develop a sense
of social and moral consciosness.
why? is the existentia question that every
individual must be permitted to ask, and must
receive an appropriate and meaningful answer,
from those in power or who mete out of justice.

 Moral

practices start with the family and continue

with the church and community, but teachers must
also play an active role if our society is to become
more compassionate, caring, and just.
Our work requires that we understand what is at
stake: improving and enriching society by making our
childrend, and their children, care about what is
morally right. We are obliged to motivate students to
accomplish great things that exhibit the good side of
humanity.
Active teaching and learning means that students be
ancouraged and rewaerded for moral and community
action, for helping others and volunteering their time
and service. Therefore, character development and
civic service should receive the same attention and
recognition that we give to a students and star
quarterbacks. Active teaching and learning call for
special assemblies, special scholarships, and special
staff development pro grams that promote character
development, the desire to help others, and the
expectation of social and civic involvement.

Teaching, testing, and the

achievement Gap
Teaching

has become geared toward improving

student test outcomes and getting measureble
results, not whether students are really
learning. Tests are driving curriculum in the
form of content standards, and teachers are
expected to teach toward those standars.
There is little concern about whether students
can critically think or solve problems, or
whether their social, personal, and emotional
needs are being met.

Teaching and Learning

Throughout

the 1980s, a debate focused on

whether schooling improved cognitive test scores
and wether these outcomes affected economic
earnings. Schooling explained only a modest
amount of the variations related to academic
achievement.
Most of the variation in economic outcomes can be
attributed to noncognitive factors such a physical
characteristics, personality, motivation, reliability,
honesty, and creativity.
The negligible impact of schooling was bolstered in
the 1980s and 1990s by Erik Hanusheks review of
the research, which confirmed like the Coleman
and jenks reports that schools have no measurable
effect on students test scores of future earnings,
and there is no strong realtionship between
schoolspending and student oerformance.

 Where

research did show show that school

characteristics or school spending had postive
effects, the relationship was small or shown to
be contaminated by:
1. methodological assumptions
2. weighting procedures of school
characteristics, and
3. unlike comparisons across schools, schools
districts, or states.

Aptitude, Achievement and

Human capital
We

are told that schools help promote

intergenerational mobility, although they do not
themselves provide sufficient opportunity to break
the general class structure. Given our information
age, in which knowledge is crucial, formal education
should increase social mobility in the future;
however, we cannot dismiss growing economic
inequality when students are completing more
school years. Strudents at the botto of the social
order tend to be frozen in their parents status ,
bu for the small percentage who ca rise above that
status, the schools are the chief route to succes.
Mayer and Peterson arguue that both aptitude and
achievement result in adult succes but aptitude is
more amportant because people who learn more
quickly are more useful to their employers than
people who learn slowly or with diffculty..

 Mayer

and Peterson furhter maintain that

schools ca exert considerable influence on the
childs experiences, and these experiences
affect achievment. In general, each additional
year of schooling beyond high school increases
wages 2 to 4 percent, not considering the effect
of aptitude or intelligence.
Grissmer infers that family capital is more
important than social capital, and the authors
agree because the family doesnt change while
the school and community can change (simply
by the familys moving) and the childs earliest
experiences are rooted in the family. However,
he points out that family and social capital are
not independent, or randomly distributed, but
are grouped together becuse economics.

NAEP/State standards and

Test Scores
Thousands

of publications exits showing

realtionship between social class and
achievement and race/ethnicity and
achievement.. Since 1990, the NAEP, known as
the nations Report Card, has reported
fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade performance
scores in reading and math, as well as other
subject areas.

NAEP

State Test

Readi Math Readi Math

ng
ng

Difference Total
Reading + Math

Tennesse
e

26

21

80

79

54 + 58 = 112

Texas

26

25

88

72

62 + 47 = 109

N.Carolin
a

29

32

86

82

57 + 50 = 107

W.
Virginia

25

20

80

69

55 + 49 = 104

Oklahom
a

30

20

79

73

49 + 53 = 102

Georgia

26

22

81

67

55 + 45 = 100

Ohio

34

30

87

71

53 + 41 = 94

Wisconsin

37

35

84

76

47 + 41 = 88

Colorado

36

34

86

68

50 + 34 = 84

 Under

the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, fourthgrade and eighth-grade students in every state
were required to participate in NAEP reading and
math tests every other year, in part to verify state
assesments. Such comparisons on state and
national test have never been possible or required
before.
According to NCLB, all students are required to
reach proficiency on state reading and math tests
by 2014 . States are judged on yearly progress and
penalized, including the loss of federal funds,if
proficiency levels decline. Yet states continue to
use their own definition of proficiency. Those
states that have the bar lower will have an easier
time meeting the mark and avoiding federal
sanctions, but it can be expected that evenually
state officials and education polycimakers will
address these different standards.

 All

the states have softened standars, provided

multiple chances to retake the tests, and or
added alternative paths to a diploma in order to
prop up graduation numbers. Standars have
been lowered, then lowered again and again,
because a disproportionate percent of miniorities
fail the tests, afterwards accompanied by law
suits claiming that the tests are unfair. The
outcome is that the high school diploma has
diminished in value in a information and global
economy that requires literate and skilled
workers to compete with other in dustrialized and
emerging nations.

 Whether

the problem resuls from poverty, or

inadequacies of students and their families, or
teachers, or underlying reecism, the solution is
to prevent the gaps from emerging in the first
place by focusing on infant and preschool
education, and family conditions. But as critics
point out, early childhood programs are diffuse,
uncoor dinated, and underfunded, and family
differences and issues lead to controversial and
heated debates and politically omplicaed
solutions.

Race and Class

Explanations

for the achievment gap run the gamut from

differences in family and health conditions, to teachers
expectations and experience, to school spending and
changing student exclusion rates, to television viewing
and hip-hop culture.
Fourteen factors related to home and school conditions
and student achievment for low-income and minority
students for which they are disadvataged. Home
conditions in clude:
1. Low birth weights
2. Exposure to lead poisoning found in old houses
3. Hunger and malnutrition
4. Parents or adults who rarely read to young children
5. Watching lots of television
6. Significant percentages of one-family households (2.5
timea higher among black hildren copared to white
children)

7.
High student mobility rates
8.
And minimal parent participation in school
matters. School conditions include
9.
Easier couses
10. Teachers with fewer years of experience and
larger absentee rates
11. Teaches with less preparation, and more of
them out of license
12. Fewer computers available in school and less
internet use at home
13. Larger class size
14. More unsafe schools

 For

the nation as whole, the disparity in

school performace tied to race and class has
become a major issue because of the social
and economic implications of the continuous
failure of schools to prepare tens of millions of
children for the technological and information
age, and to compete in the global economy.
The inability of schools to close the
achievement gap has led business and parent
groups to lose faith in public schools, to insist
on higher standards and more testing as an
overall solution to the problem, and to insist
on a veriety of school alternatives.

Another Option
In

order to neutralize the skepticism of the education

establish-ment, reformes have developed a literature
on more affective schools which purports that innercity schools can succesfully educate poor and minority
students.
Advocates of this approach pay attention to schools as
intitutions (focusing on preschool and elementary
schools), the environment in which they operate, and
usually defie success in terms of students
achievement.
Given the public concern for young children, and the
fact that Americans have sufficient wealth as a nation
to meet the education and special needs of all young
children, it is surprising that we lack a national and
sustainable program that we lack a national and
sustainable program that supports a public investment
in infant and toddler education.

 The

research is consistent about the value of

early childhood education for children who are
at risk and coincides with the developmental
theories of Jean Piaget and Ben Bloom.
The industrialized countries of Europe, Australia,
and New Zealand spend on average 0.5 percent
of their GNP on education for early childhood.

Race and Class

Explanations

for the achievment gap run the gamut from

differences in family and health conditions, to teachers
expectations and experience, to school spending and
changing student exclusion rates, to television viewing and
hip-hop culture.
Fourteen factors related to home and school conditions
and student achievment for low-income and minority
students for which they are disadvataged. Home
conditions in clude:
1. Low birth weights
2. Exposure to lead poisoning found in old houses
3. Hunger and malnutrition
4. Parents or adults who rarely read to young children
5. Watching lots of television
6. Significant percentages of one-family households (2.5
timea higher among black hildren copared to white
children)

7.
High student mobility rates
8.
And minimal parent participation in school
matters. School conditions include
9.
Easier couses
10. Teachers with fewer years of experience and
larger absentee rates
11. Teaches with less preparation, and more of
them out of license
12. Fewer computers available in school and less
internet use at home
13. Larger class size
14. More unsafe schools

 For

the nation as whole, the disparity in school

performace tied to race and class has become a
major issue because of the social and economic
implications of the continuous failure of schools
to prepare tens of millions of children for the
technological and information age, and to
compete in the global economy. The inability of
schools to close the achievement gap has led
business and parent groups to lose faith in
public schools, to insist on higher standards and
more testing as an overall solution to the
problem, and to insist on a veriety of school
alternatives.

Another Option
In

order to neutralize the skepticism of the

education establish-ment, reformes have
developed a literature on more affective schools
which purports that inner-city schools can
succesfully educate poor and minority students.
Advocates of this approach pay attention to schools
as intitutions (focusing on preschool and
elementary schools), the environment in which
they operate, and usually defie success in terms of
students achievement.
Given the public concern for young children, and
the fact that Americans have sufficient wealth as a
nation to meet the education and special needs of
all young children, it is surprising that we lack a
national and sustainable program that we lack a
national and sustainable program that supports a
public investment in infant and toddler education.

 The

research is consistent about the value of

early childhood education for children who are
at risk and coincides with the developmental
theories of Jean Piaget and Ben Bloom.
The industrialized countries of Europe,
Australia, and New Zealand spend on average
0.5 percent of their GNP on education for early
childhood.