Mechanisms of ATP

Production
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation

What is ATP?
Processes such as pumping ions across a
concentration gradient and making new
molecules are endergonic i.e., they
require the input of energy.
This energy is often supplied by the
energy released through the hydrolysis of
the molecule adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

http://info.citruscollege.com/LC/SUBJECTS/BIOL/Goodman104/ExamTopics1/BIOENERGETICS.ppt

Hydrolysis of ATP
ATP + H2O

ADP + P (exergonic)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

P

Hydrolysis
(add water)
P

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Function of ATP
As a nucleotide for the synthesis of DNA.
As a source of energy within a cell.
Other functions

Biosynthesis of ATP

Biosynthesis of ATP
ADP + Pi

ATP + H2O (endergonic)

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

+ Energy (36 kjoule/mole)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
P

Substrate-level
phosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation
The synthesis of ATP from ADP directly
coupled to the breakdown of a high-energy
organic substrates.

Animation of substrate-level
phosphorylation

http://student.ccbc.cc.md.us/biotutorials/energy/subphos.html

Occurrences of substrate-level
phosphorylation
There are two steps in glycolysis which
result in the formation of ATP through
substrate-level phosphorylation.
There is one steps in the TCA cycle
which result in the formation of ATP
through substrate-level phosphorylation.

How much ATP?

So far the ATP biosynthesis we have covered
so far has been by substrate-level
phosphorylation.
We have, from one mole of glucose,
generated
Wait for it
Only four (4) moles of ATP!

Synthesis of ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation
&
The electron transport chain (ECT)

Source of energy
The energy for the synthesis of ATP can
come from breaking high energy bonds,
as in substrate-level phosphorylation.
or
The energy released from oxidation of
reduced dinucleotides.

Reduced dinucleotides

Remember

NAD+ + H+ + 2e-

NADH

FAD

FADH2

+ 2H+ + 2e-

These electrons contain a lot of energy

Sources of reduced dinucleotides

NADH from glycolysis
NADH from the reaction which converts
pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
NADH from the metabolism of fatty acids
NADH and FADH2 from the TCA cycle

How could we unlock the energy

carried by these electrons?
The cell can harvest the energy carried by
these electrons using the ECT.
The ECT consists of a series of proteins in
the inner mitochondrial membrane which
accept and pass on electrons.
The proteins are able to extract the energy
from the electrons.

Components of the ECT

http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/mcmurrygob/medialib/media_portfolio/
text_images/FG21_111-2.JPG

Transfer of electrons from NADH

NADH gives up its
electrons to the proteins
which make up complex I
One of these proteins
contains iron (Fe) which
can alternate between
Fe3+ and Fe2+

Fe3+ + e- Fe2+

Complex I

The proteins of complex I harvest some of

the energy carried by these electrons and
use it to pump protons (H+) from the
mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane
space.

Coenzyme Q
The electrons are now
passed on to a small,
mobile molecule called
coenzyme Q.
Coenzyme Q then
passes the electrons to
Complex III.

Complex III
More energy is
extracted from the
electrons by the
proteins in complex III.
The energy extracted is
again used to transfer
H+ from the
mitochondrial matrix
into the intermembrane
space.

Cytochrome c
The electrons are then
transferred to another
small mobile protein
called cytochrome c.
Cytochrome c passes
these electrons onto a
group of proteins called
complex IV.

Complex IV
Cytochrome c then
passes these electrons
onto the proteins of
complex IV.
More energy is
harvested from the
electrons and used to
transport more H+ from
the matrix to
intermembrane space.

Complex IV
The electrons are then
passed from complex IV
onto molecular oxygen
i.e., O2.
If there is no molecular
oxygen available then
the flow of electrons
along the ECT is not
possible as O2 is not
available as the final
electron acceptor.

What about the electrons carried by

FADH2?
The enzyme succinate
dehydrogenase which
produces the FADH2 in
the TCA cycle is part of
complex II.
The electrons carried
by the FADH2 are
passed on to coenzyme
Q, thereby missing out
a proton transfer step.

2e

No O2 i.e. anaerobic conditions

O2 +2H+
H2O

So the energy carried by the electrons have

been used to pump protons (H+) from one side
of a membrane to another.
How does that provide the energy to synthesise
ATP from ADP and Pi?

Proton battery
Intermembrane space

Mitochondrial matrix

Flow of H back into the matrix

+

The H+ want to
move back into
the matrix.
They can, but
only through the
ATP synthase
complex.

Finally ATP is synthesised

The protons (H+) can only flow back into
the matrix through the ATP synthase
complex.
The energy released by flow of protons
(H+) back into the matrix is used to fuel
the synthesis of the ATP.

So how much ATP?

The electrons carried by NADH provide
enough energy to fuel the biosynthesis of
three (3) molecules of ATP.
The electrons carried by FADH2 provide
enough energy to fuel the biosynthesis of
two (2) molecules of ATP.

Whats the total ATP then?

ATP

NADH

FADH2

Glycolysis

2 (6)

Link

2 (6)

TCA cycle

6 (18)

2 (4)

Red figures = equivalent amount of ATP

Grand total of ATP from 1 mole of

glucose.

38 moles of ATP

How is this process controlled?

The flow of electrons through the ECT can
only occur if:
There is a supply of NADH or FADH2 to
supply the electrons.
There is a supply O2 to act as the final
acceptor of the electrons.
There is a supply of ADP and Pi (inorganic
phosphate).

Interesting facts.
Well they are to me anyway, so there!
The small, lipid soluble compound, 2,4dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) disrupts the
proton gradient.
This result in the generation of heat rather
than ATP.
Young babies and hibernating bears have
a protein called thermogenin which does
this keeps them warm.