Structuring systmes

Logic requirements

 Structured English as a tool for representing steps in

logical processes
Use decision tables to represent the logic of choice in
conditional statements
Use decision trees

 As good data flow diagrams are for identifying

processes they are not very good at showing the logic
inside the processes. The processes on the primitive
level data flow diagrams do not show even the most
fundamental processing steps. Just what occurs within a
process? Data flow diagrams are not really designed to
show the detailed logic of processes, you must model
process logic using other techniques.

Structured english
structured English is a modified form of English that is used to
s[ecofy the contents of process boxes in a DFD. It differs from
regular English in that it uses a sub set of English vocabulary to
express information system process procedures.
Action verbs are used these include read, write, print sort move
merge add subtract multiply and divide
Structured English does not use adjectives or adverbs.
It is used to represent processes in a shorthand manner that is
relatively easy for users and programmers to read and understand.
Theres no standard version each analyst will have his or her own
particular dialect

 Notice how the format of the structured English process

description mimics the format usually used in
programming languages especially the practice of
indentation
Notice also that the language is similar to spoken
English using verbs and nouns.
The language is simple enouph that a user who knows
nothing about computer programming can understand
the steps involved in performing the various processes
yet the structure makes it easy to convert the
description into a programming language.

Decision tables
Sometimes the logic of a process can become quite complex. If
several different conditions are involved and combinations of
these conditions dictate which of the several actions should be
taken then structured English may not be adequate for
representing the logic behind such a complicated choice
A decision table is a diagram of process logic where the logic is
reasonably where the logic is reasonably complicated. All
possible choices and the conditions the choices depend on are
represented in a tabular form. The table has 4 tabs. The
conditions, condition entries. Action and action entries. The
condition stub contains the various conditions that apply to the
situation the table is modelling

 A decision table is a logical structure that shows

every combination of conditions and outcomes.
Analysts often use decision tables to describe a process
and ensure that they have considered all possible
situations. You can create decision tables using
Microsoft PowerPoint, Word, or Excel.

Decision trees
A decision tree is a graphical representation of
the conditions, actions, and rules found in a
decision table. Decision trees show the logic structure in
a horizontal form that resembles a tree with the roots at
the left and the branches to the right. Like flowcharts,
decision trees are useful ways to present the system to
management. Decision trees and decision tables
provide the same results, but in different forms. In many
situations, a graphic is the most effective means of
communication.

Data dictionary
The data dictionary is the central documentation tool for
structured analysis. All data elements, data flows, data
stores, processes, entities, and records are documented
in the data dictionary. Consolidating documentation in
one location allows you to verify the information
systems accuracy and consistency more easily and
generate a variety of useful reports.

Object oriented analysis

Object Oriented Analysis describes an information system
by identifying things called objects. An object represents
a real person, place, event, or transaction. For
example, when a patient makes an appointment to see a
doctor, the patient is an object, The doctor is an object,
and the appointment itself is an object. Object-oriented
analysis is a popular approach that sees a system from the
viewpoint of the objects themselves as they function and
interact. The end product of object-oriented analysis is an
object model, which represents the information system in
terms of objects and object-oriented concepts.

 An object, however, includes data and the processes that affect

that data. For example, a customer object has a name, an
address, an account number, and a current balance. Customer
objects also can perform specific tasks, such as placing an order,
paying a bill, and changing their address.
An object has certain attributes, which are characteristics
that describe the object. For example, if you own a car, it has
attributes such as make, model, and color. An object also has
methods, which are tasks or functions that the object
performs when it receives a message, or command, to do
so. For example, your car performs a method called OPERATE
WIPERS when you send a message by moving the proper control.

 A class is a group of similar objects. For example,

Ford Fiestas belong to a class called CAR. An instance
is a specific member of a class. Your Ford Fiesta,
therefore, is an instance of the CAR class.

Attributes
If objects are similar to nouns, attributes are similar to
adjectives that describe the characteristics of an object.
How many attributes are needed? The answer depends on
the business requirements of the information system and
its users.
Systems analysts define an objects attributes during the
systems design process. In an object-oriented system,
objects can inherit, or acquire, certain attributes from
other objects. When you learn about relationships
between objects and classes, you will understand how
that occurs.

 Objects can have a specific attribute called a state. The

state of an object is an adjective that describes the
objects current status. For example, depending on the
state, a student can be a future student, a current student,
or a past student. Similarly, a bank account can be active,
inactive, closed, or frozen.
Methods
A method defines specific tasks that an object can perform.
Just as objects are similar to nouns and attributes are
similar to adjectives, methods resemble verbs that describe
what and how an object does something.

Messages
A message is a command that tells an object to perform
a certain method. For example, the message ADD
STUDENT directs the STUDENT class to add a STUDENT
instance. The STUDENT class understands that it should
add the student number, name, and other data about
that student. The same message to two different
objects can produce different results. The concept that a
message gives different meanings to different objects
is called polymorphism.

 You can view an object as a black box, because a message to the object
triggers changes within the object without specifying how the changes
must be carried out. A gas pump is an example of a black box. When you
select the economy grade at a pump, you do not need to think about
how the pump determines the correct price and selects the right fuel, as
long as it does so properly.
The black box concept is an example of encapsulation, which means that
all data and methods are self-contained. A black box does not want or
need outside interference. By limiting access to internal processes, an
object prevents its internal code from being altered by another object or
process. Encapsulation allows objects to be used as modular components
anywhere in the system, because objects send and receive messages
but do not alter The internal methods of other objects.

Use Case Modeling

A use case represents the steps in a specific business
function or process. An external entity, called an actor,
initiates a use case by requesting the system to perform
a function or process. For example, in a medical office
system, a PATIENT (actor) can MAKE APPOINTMENT (use
case),