CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

CEM 571

Chapter 5

BRICKS
Selection and function of Temporary Works
and permanent work in construction and
maintenance works including

LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of lecture, student will be able to :

Explain the definition, classifications, types
and process of bricks. (CO1; PO2)
Identify the various types of brickworks
bonding, dampness protections and
anchorage. (CO1; PO2)

History
The art of brick making can be traced back to before 6000
B.C. Peoples of Mesopotamia built palaces and temples
of stones and sun-dried brick by 4000 B.C. Roman then
used bricks for arches and roof vaults in their basilicas,
baths, palaces and aqueducts.
In mid century, the development brought by the Islamic
world by building magnificent palaces, markets and
mosques of brick, while the Europeans built fortresses and
cathedrals

History

Fortress

In the 19th century, the effects of the industrial revolution

transformed brickmaking from a hand craft to a mechanized factory.
Machines were invented and developed to mould, press and
exclude clay bricks and improved kiln were designed to fire greater
quantities of bricks, quicker and with more consistency.

In 20th century, development in the masonry construction new techniques for steel reinforced masonry, high strength
mortars, high structural strength masonry units and
masonry units of many types that reduce the number of
labour required.

Applications
In Malaysia, brick is widely used for buildings, civil engineering
works and landscapes features. our rich heritage masonry
buildings built during the pre-war era. One of the best examples
is the Sultan Abdul Samad Building.
Areas where bricks are commonly applied are as partition walls,
cladding and facings, perimeter and garden wall, hard
landscaping and paving and flooring. Bricks can also serve as
external and internal load bearing wall or load bearing piers and
column.

Figure 3: Low Rise Loadbearing and Cladding

Figure 4: High Rise Loadbearing and

Figure 5: Reinforced Structures and Low-Energy

Building

Figure 6: Exterior

wall and interior wall and flooring

Retaining wall

Patio

Freestanding wall

Barbecue

Figure 7: Bricks in Hard Landscaping

Pathways

Steps and walkways

Figure 8: Load bearing arch bridge

Figure 9: Column and Pier spine wall

Figure 10: Window sill and Arch door

DEFINITION
Bricks, stones, concrete blocks are collectively known as
masonry units.
Masonry is the building technique.
Mason is a person who stacks pieces of masonry unit a top one
another to make walls and also known as bricklayer.
Brickwork is the exterior of most houses and is not only a
structural component but also protects against weather and
decorates.

Brick as defined by MS 76: 1972: Part 2 and BS 3921: 1985:

Clay Bricks as a walling unit not exceeding 337.5 mm in length,
225 mm in width or 112.5 mm in height.
Bricks are known by their coordinating size; that is the actual
size plus a 10 mm joint allowance to three faces and tolerances.
The standard brick of nominal dimension of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm
has actual work size of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm. (see Figure 11)
work size

102.5mm
65mm

coordinating
size
Figure 11: Brick dimension

215mm

BRICK CLASSIFICATION
Malaysian Standard, MS 76: 1972 classifies bricks under three
headings:1. VARIETIES
The standard divides varieties into three forms and they are
common, Facing and Engineering:

Figure 12: Common, Facing

and Engineering bricks

COMMON:bricks made without any particular attention to give

an attractive appearance and for general construction work such as
for backing walls, internal walls, walls with applied finishes and
foundation work. Figure 13 shows example of common brick use
as backing wall.

Figure 13: Common brick use as perimeter wall

FACING:
bricks of consistent colour and texture,
reasonably free from surface defect or
blemishes, customize or selected to
have an attractive appearance intended
for the construction of fair-faced
walling without plastering or other
surface treatment. Figure 14 shows
facing brick used as an external wall.

Figure14:Facingbrickusedasanexternal
wall

ENGINEERING:
having a dense and strong semivitreous body, conforming to define
limits for water absorption and
compressive strength,
i.e. strong dense bricks.(Figure 15)

Figure15:Engineeringbricks

QUALITIES
The standard recognizes three qualities of bricks, and they are:
INTERNALQUALITY: suitable for internal use only.

ORDINARYQUALITY: less durable than the special quality,

but normally durable in the external face of the building.

SPECIALQUALITY: durable even when used in situations of

extreme exposure where the structure may become saturated, e.g.
retaining walls, sewerage plants or paving. Such bricks have
clearly defined limits for soluble salts content.

TYPES

Solid Brick

The standard distinguishes types of brick according to their physical

form, and they are:SOLID:
have cores or cells passing through or nearly through the brick
constitutes no more than 25 percent of their gross cross-sectional area,
or frogs that is a depressions in the bed face of brick that do not exceed
20 percent of its gross cross-sectional area.
A core or cell is defined as a hole less than 20mm wide or less than
500mm2 in area with a maximum three larger holes not exceeding 3250
mm2.

Perforated brick

PERFORATED:
if the holes passing through the brick exceed 25
percent of its gross cross-sectional area and with a
maximum three larger holes not exceeding 3250
mm2. Small holes lesser than 25 percent.

Hollow brick

Celular brick

Types
HOLLOW : means holes passing through the brick exceed 25
percent of its gross cross-sectional area and the holes are larger
than those defined as small holes. Large holes greater than 25
percent.
CELLULAR: means a brick which holes are closed at one end
and exceed 20 percent of its gross cross-sectional area.

SPECIALSHAPES: bricks of special shape and size, other than the

normal rectangular prism.
These are accessory bricks used to form curves or non right-angled
corners, curved walls, arches or to form features or construction
details that cannot be built using standard units unless they are cut
and pieced together.
E.g. squints, circular and bullnose bricks. (Figure 20)
Squint

Circular

Bullnose
Figure20:Specialshapesbrick

Figure21:Archoveranopening.

TYPES OF BRICK
CLAYBRICKS

The materials used for making clay brick range from soft and
plastic surface deposits to hard mudstone and shale.
Clay bricks are produced by mixing the finely ground clay with
water, moulding, extrusion or pressure into the desired shape,
drying it, and burning it.
The shape obtained should retain its original shape without
undue shrinkage, warping or cracking when the bricks are dried
and fired.

ManufactureofClayBricks
The various methods of production of clay bricks are governed
by the nature of the clay or shale, and may be divided into:Semi-dry Process or
Semi-plastic Process

The clay or shale is comparatively dry. The raw

material is ground to a fine powder by heavy rollers,
passed through the screen, mixed to a uniform
consistency, pressed and re-pressed in moulds and
burnt.

Stiff-plastic Process

Similar to the semi-dry or semi-plastic process, except

that the water content of the material is increased and
less powerful machinery is needed to mould the brick.

Plastic Process

The clay or shale suitable for this process contains a

large proportion of moisture. This type of process is
used for making wire-cut and hand-made bricks. The
bricks must be carefully dried before being burnt in
the kiln.

The stages involved in manufacturing clay bricks :- preparation of

the raw materials, moulding, drying and burning.

PREPARATION
Clay or shale dug either by hand or mechanical excavators from
the quarry or pit need to be cleaned to remove any undesirable
material such as stone or coarse vegetable matter, etc.
For making common bricks, the raw material obtained will be
quarried direct to the crushing machinery.
However, for producing of more expensive bricks, requires the
selection of material from different strata and this is normally
made at the quarry-face.

These materials are blended together by mechanical

mixer in conjunction with the grinding or crushing
machine.
After being ground the material is passed through a
screening machine to ensure that only fine, well graded
material passed forward for moulding.
Those coarse material retained on the screen is returned
for further grinding.

MOULDING The prepared clay or shale is machine mould

by either the wire-cut process or pressed process, or it may be
hand moulding
Machine mould :- Wire Cut Process
The clay usually fairly soft and of fine
texture is extruded as a continuous plastic
band or column and propelled over oiled
rollers to the cutting table.
This cutting table consists of a frame containing
several wires at a distance apart equal to
Figure22:Wirecutmachine
the thickness of the bricks plus the
shrinkage allowance.
Bricks made by wire cut process contain about 15% to
25% moisture and therefore must be partly pre-dried in
chamber or tunnel dryers before placed it in the kiln for
firing. Wire cut bricks do not have frogs. (Figure 22)

Pressure Process
The prepared clay is automatically fed into the moulds which are
the size of a brick plus shrinkage allowance.
Moulding bricks by pressure can be done either by hand or by
steam or electric power.
In the steam or electric power, the rotary press or belt driven press
machine with a number of moulds are brought in turn under the
plunger where the prepared clay will be discharged and
consolidated it under great pressure. After consolidation, the bricks
are removed either by an upward movement of the base or by the
dropping of the sides.

Hand Mould
Good quality clays are normally a prerequisite for hand
moulding.
They are made up of softer consistency having a rich texture,
beautiful colouring and durability. The prepared plastic clay is
left to stand or sometimes resorted as ageing for a period varying
from one day to several weeks in cool chamber to ensure a
uniform distribution of the water throughout the mass and the
decomposition of any organic matter.
This process is to increase the plasticity and workability of the
paste and preventing the development of cracks, blisters and
other defects.

DRYING

Figure23:Artificialdrying
brickstacked

Normally bricks made of stiff-plastic

process or having water content exceeding
25% have to be dried before being placed
in the kiln.
Drying can be done either by artificial
drying or by natural drying. In artificial
drying, the heating mediums can be of
steam, direct heat from fires or waste heat
from kilns and boilers. The dryers include
the hot floor, shed, chamber and tunnel
types.
In natural drying, normally a well ventilated shed is used where the
bricks are stacked on racks and dried by the circulation of unheated air.

BURNING
In this process, bricks are fired in the kiln. Firing of bricks
produces a number of complicated chemical and physical
changes in clay, therefore the degree of control of the inside
temperature of the kiln is very important.
Typically the temperature of firing is about 900 oC to 1200 oC.
The colours of the clay bricks are generated by the reaction of
the raw materials to the firing.
Differences in temperature and atmospheric conditions during
firing give rise to variations of colour. Kilns may be classified
into intermittent, continuous and tunnel.

Table3:Typesofkiln
Intermittent Kiln

For firing special bricks or other requirements. It is a

permanent structure with either down drought, horizontal
draught or up-draught kiln according to the direction of the
fire. The most commonly used is of down drought. Consists of
rectangularchamberlinedwithfirebrickhavingfourwallsand
an arched top which incorporates a heat-insulating ring
composed of porous bricks to reduce the amount of heat
transmittedthroughthestructureandthereforeeffectsasaving
infuel.The heatfromthefuel willpassesupwards tothearch
and deflected it down through the openly stacked green brick.
The produced gases will escaped through perforations in the
floortoahorizontalflueconnectedtoatallchimney.

Continuous Kiln

Suitableforlargeandregularoutputs.Itconsistsofanumberof
chambers connected in such a way that the operations are
uninterruptedandthewasteheatisutilizedtodryandpre-heat
the green bricks. Each chambers in turn being loaded with
green brick, fired, burnt, cooled and emptied. The structure
consists of walls of ordinary brickwork, lined with firebricks
jointedwithrefractorycement.Thetopisgenerallyarchedand
the floor is usually constructed of hard bricks bedded on sand
orconcrete.Thekilnisdividedintocompartmentsorchambers
andthenumberofcompartmentvaries.

Kiln

Figure24:IntermittentkilnandContinuouskiln
Tunnel Kiln

Intunnelkiln,thestackedbrickswillbeferriedbycarsor
trucksonatrackbyapowerfulhydraulicram,whilethe
fires stay still. The brick will be traversed on kiln car,
passes along a tunnel through preheating, firing and
coolingzone.Thefiringzoneandpartofthecoolingzone
arelinedwithfirebrick.Thetemperatureandtrackspeed
of the kiln car are controlled to provide the optimum
conditions in each zone, and may be varied to produce a
specificfunctionaland/orappearancecharacteristics.

PropertiesofClayBricks
There are many kinds of clay bricks available and they vary
considerably in appearance and function properties depending on
the purposes for which they are intended. The British Standard, BS
3921: 1985 has specifies certain requirements for clay brick for
use in walling, and they are dimensions, compressive strength,
water absorption, soluble salt content, efflorescence and sampling.
Dimensional
Deviation

Theindividualsize shouldnotexceedthecoordinating
size225x112.5x75mm,andtheoverallmeasurement
takenfrom24samplesofbricksshouldnotfalloutside
thelimitasgivenintheBS3921:1985,i.e.maximumof
5235x2505x1605mmandminimumof5085x2415x
1515mm.

Compressive
Strength

Compressive strengths ranging from about 7 to more than

100 N/mm2. The strength varies depending on the clay
compositionandthefiring.Itissubjectedtocreepatnormal
temperatureandtheYoungsmodulus liesbetween5and30
N/mm2.Thestrengthofabrickistakenfrommeanof10nos.
ofbricksofrandomsampling.(SeeTable1)

Water Absorption

Thewaterabsorptionofthebricksusedinawallaffectsthe
mode of rain penetration. It is the percentage increase in
weight when it is saturated.The rate of absorption plays an
important role in the bonding of the brick to the mortar in
the joint. If the brick absorbs water from the mortar too
quickly a poor bond will result, causing leaks and other
damage.

The amount of water absorption depends on the clay

composition, duration and temperature of firing. The
percentageofwaterabsorptionistakenfromthemeanof 10
nos.ofbricksofrandomsampling.(SeeTable1)

Soluble salt
content and
Efflorescence

Solublesaltsparticularlycalciumsulfateinbrickareliable
tobecomediscolouredbytheformationofawhitishdeposit
knownasefflorescenceorsalting.Thesesaltswerebrought
tothesurfaceanddepositedtherebywaterthathadseeped
intothebrickwork,dissolvedthesalts,thenmigratedtothe
surfaceandevaporated.
Commonly found in new brickwork and on faces of old
external walls which are subjected to excessive dampness.
Thereforeinordertominimizetheriskofefflorescenceand
soluble salt attack is to design the brickwork so that it
remainsdry,i.e.notsaturated.(SeeFigure25)

Most types of newly form efflorescence can be easily

removedwithwaterandbrush.

Sampling

The required number of brick for testing can either be

from random or representative sampling, which ever is
possible. Standard required 10 nos. of bricks for each
testingtobetakenfromeachconsignment.

Table1:Classificationofbricksbycompressivestrengthandwater
absorption

Class

CompressiveStrength
(N/mm2)

WaterAbsorption
(%bymass)

EngineeringA
EngineeringA

70
50

4.5
7.0

Damp-proofcourse1
Damp-proofcourse2

5
5

4.5
7.0

Allothers

Source:BS3921:1985

Nolimits

Table2:Categoriesforsolublesaltcontentandefflorescenceofclaybrick
Solublesaltcontent:Source:BS3921:1985
Percentagebymass
Designation
Remarks
(%)
Calcium

0.300

Low(L)

Magnesium

0.030

Low(L)

Potassium

0.030

Low(L)

Sodium

0.030

Low(L)

Sulphate

0.500

Low(L)

Normal(N)Nolimiton
solublesaltcontent

Efflorescence:Nil

Noperceptibledepositofsalts

Slight

Upto10%oftheareaofthefacecoveredwithadepositofsalts,but
unaccompaniedbypowderingorflakingofthesurface.

Moderate

Morethan10%butnotmorethan50%oftheareaofthefacecovered
withadepositofsalts,butunaccompaniedbypowderingorflakingofthe
surface.
Morethan50%oftheareaofthefacecoveredwithadepositofsalts
and/orpowderingorflakingofthesurface.

Heavy

Figure 25: Efflorescence in brickwork

CALCIUMSILICATEBRICKS- in BS 187: 1978

(Also known as sandlime, or sometime as flintlime bricks)
The raw materials are siliceous aggregates, high calcium lime
and water.
A very fine aggregate with the majority passing a 1.15mm BS
410 test sieve is generally used. The ratio of aggregate to lime
by weight is in the range 10 to 20. Their natural colour is offwhite and they are smooth and regular in shape. Coloured
pigments are sometimes added if various colours and textures
are required by mechanical texturing before autoclaving.
Calcium silicate bricks are made to the same standard size as
clay bricks and they are either solid or may have frogs, but not
perforated.

ManufactureofCalciumSilicateBricks(CSB)
CSB also commonly known as autoclaved calcium silicatebonded bricks.
The moulded CSB are hardened in sealed and steam
pressurized autoclaves process. This highly mechanized or
automated process normally takes from seven to ten hours to
allow reaction between the sand and the lime, resulting in a
strong homogenous brick. The performance characteristic of
CSB can be adjusted to suit the requirements by varying the
autoclaving time and the steam pressure.

Figure 26: Autoclaving kiln

PropertiesofCalciumSilicateBricks
BS 187: 1978 specifies certain requirements and they are
dimensions, compressive strength, drying shrinkage and sampling.
The standard gives 6 classes and the higher the numbered class the
stronger is the brick, i.e. loadbearing bricks, facing bricks and
common bricks. The appearance of the loadbearing bricks and facing
bricks must be free from visible cracks and noticeable balls of clay,
loam and lime. For facing brick, it should be of the colour and
texture agreed upon and reasonably free from damage.
Typically the range of mean comp. strengths in general use is 14 to
27.5 N/mm2, depending on the quality of bricks being produced.
Drying shrinkage for common bricks of strength class 2 should not
be more than 0.040 percent. In term of water absorption for calcium
silicate bricks, it varies between about 6 and 16 percent by weight.

Table3:Compressivestrengthclasses,requirementsandcoloursofcalcium
silicatebricks
Designation

Class

Meancompressive
strengthnotlessthan
(N/mm2)

Predictedlowerlimitof
compressivestrength
notlessthan(N/mm2)

Colour

Loadbearingbrick

or
Facingbrick

7
6
5
4
3

48.5
41.5
34.5
27.5
20.5

40.5
34.5
28.0
21.5
15.5

Green
Blue
Yellow
Red
Black

Facingbrickor
commonbrick

14.0

10.0

Source : BS 187 : 1978

Calcium silicate bricks of the appropriate class can be used in all types of brickwork
including underbuilding (i.e. foundation walls and basement walls), external and
internal facework, loadbearing walls, piers and column, and non-loadbearing panel
walls and partitions.

Source:BS187:1978

Table4:Minimumqualityofcalciumsilicatebricks
Elementofconstruction
Inner-leafofcavitywallsand
internalwalls
Backing to external solid
walls
External walls including the
outer-leafofcavitywallsand
facingtosolidconstruction

Unplastered
Plastered

2
2

above damp proof course

neartogroundlevel
belowdampproofcoursebut
more than 150mm above
finishedgroundlevel
Within 150mm of ground or
belowground

Externalfree-standingwall
Parapets

Minimum quality of bricks

class
2

2
2
3
3

Unrendered

Rendered

Sillsandcopingsofbricks

Earthretainingwalls

SANDCEMENTBRICKS(SCB)-BS 1180 : 1972

Material for SCB is Portland cement and sand. Common ratio between
sand and cement is of 6 parts of sand to 1 part of cement by volume,
with max. size of sand passing through a 4.8mm mesh of BS 410 test
sieve. deals with the minimum requirement for these brick.

ManufactureofSandCementBricks
Moulding of SCB can be done either by hand or by machine. The
machine is operated either electric power or mechanical motor and
incorporated with the pressing machine.
After removal from the machine, the surface of the bricks are normally
scratched and left to be matured on the pallets under shade (stacked in
a separate rows one brick high with a space between each brick).
Normally for the first 24 hours after removal from the machine, the
bricks will be kept wet by watering through a fine spray. Removed
from the pallets after 2 days removal from the machine & allow to
mature for a period of 26 days.

PropertiesofSandCementBricks
BS 1180: 1978 has specifies certain requirements for sand cement
bricks for used in walling, and they are dimensions, compressive
strength and drying shrinkage and sampling.
Table 5: Physical requirements
Source:
BS1180:1978
Compressivestrengthcategory

Physicalproperty

Compressivestrength(wet):
averageof10brickstobenot
lessthan(N/mm2)
Coefficientofvariationof
compressivestrengthnotto
exceed(%)
Dryingshrinkagenottoexceed
(%)

7.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

7.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

30

30

30

20

20

16

0.06

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

CONCRETEBRICKS
Concrete bricks are made from a mixture of inert aggregate and
cement same as calcium silicate brick and are cured in either by
weathering or in an autoclave.
These concrete bricks are harder, more difficult to cut and less
pleasant to handle than clay or calcium silicate bricks and are
less commonly used.
The drying shrinkage varies from 0.019 to 0.080 % of the
length and is greater than that of calcium silicate bricks. BS
6073: Part 1: 1981 deals with the min. requirements for these
bricks and the classification of the types and their properties.

MORTAR FOR BRICKWORK

Mortar work is serves to cushion the brick units, giving full
bearing against one another despite their surface irregularities.
The purpose of mortar is:- 1.
it bonds the bricks together;
- 2. to seal between the bricks against penetration by
air and moisture;
- 3.
it adheres the brick units to one another to bond
them into monolithic structural unit;
- 4. accommodates small movements within the wall.
- 5. the appearance of the finished brick wall.

MORTARMIXESBS 5628: Part 1: 1978.

Mortar is composed of an inert aggregate
(sand) and a binding material of lime or
cement or both.
The proportion of cement and lime in the
binder affects the properties of mortar, and it
can be carried out by volume or by weight.
Most mortar mixes are based on a ratio of 1
binder to 3 aggregate (Figure 26). The
reason is because the air spaces between
particles of sand account for about one
quarter of the total volume.

Figure26:Mortar
mixture

Mortar is a mixture of sand, cementitious materials and

water used to bond bricks.

Cementlime is a mixture of cement, lime and sand.

Lime Mortar- slake lime mix with sand and water.
Masonry cement- mixture of OPC and inert pulverized
limestone or hydrated lime.
Slaking is the chemical reaction that produces hydrated
lime when limestone and water are mixed

CEMENT - Portland cement is the bonding agent in the mortar,

besides providing strength and durability.
The type of cement used will governs the setting
characteristics, workability and the strength development of
mortar. More cement produces a strong mortar and reduces the
risk of sulphation as it absorbs less water.
LIME Imparts workability, water retention, elasticity and
bond strength. However, if the amount of lime is too much, it
delays the setting of the mortar and walls may be unstable and
liable to wind and other damages. The period of slaking,
composition and strength of mortar depend upon the class of
lime used.

SAND - Sand used must be cleaned and screened to

eliminate particles that are too coarse or too fine.
Changes in sand type and gradation affect the
workability of the mortar. Sands deficient in fines
generally produce harsh mortars, while sands with
excessive fines result in weak mortars.

The purpose of sand in mortar is to : act as a filler which enhances the strength
of mortar;
reduce shrinkage therefore prevent the
development of cracks;
assist in the hardening of pure limes by
allowing the penetration of air which provides
CO2 for the development of carbonization;
control dimensional stability by retaining its
shape and thickness;
reduce cost as sand is cheaper than lime
or cement.

WATER Is a mixing agent which adds to workability and

without water cement hydration and subsequent setting and
hardening of the mortar would not be possible.

Mortar joint
Is a narrow line with a conventional nominal joint thickness of
10 mm.
It account for over 17% of the surface area of the brickwork.
e.g. in English bond, about 20% of the surface area is mortar,
while bond consisting of all headers the proportion is nearly
25%.
Brickwork is jointed by striking, raking or rubbing the mortar
while it is still green.

Mortar joints should be finished at the surface with a consistently

shape profile as this also affects the appearance of the work, i.e.
each profile casts a characteristic shadow in sunlight as can be
seen in Figure 27.
A recessed joint casts a dense, bold shadow and darkens the tone
of the brickwork by the darkness in the joint.
A flush joint has no shadow and does not modify the tone of the
wall by this effect.
The concave surface of the keyed joint creates a soft shadow to the
bed joints.
Pointing in brickwork is the finish given to the joints by raking out
to a depth of approximately 13mm to 20mm and then refilling the
joint and the face with a hard setting cement mortar.

Figure 27: The profile of bed joints view at close distance

Flush Joint

Recessed Joint

20mm

Weathered Joint

Keyed Joint

20mm
Figure 28: Mortar
Joint Profile

Weathered Pointing

Raked Out Joint

Mortar and grout differ conceptually from concrete in this primary

respects: water content, stiffness of the mix, aggregate size and
permitted cementitious materials.

Grout is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate and enough

water to cause the mixture to flow readily into cores or cavities in
the brickwork.

Concrete, mortar and grout are all permitted to have OPC and blended
cement as their cementitious materials.
However, mortar may also incorporate lime, which is not used in
concrete and may only be used sparingly in grout.

BRICKWORK BONDING

Bricklayingisanart!

The brick in a length of wall must be properly bonded in order

to distribute vertical and horizontal loads over a larger area and
so minimize the possibility of differential movement between
bricks, i.e. structural integrity to the wall.
Bonding is part of the bricklayers skill in producing a pleasing
appearance, besides ensuring stability of the brickwork.
It is a disposition of brick in a wall designed to ensure that the
cross joint in each course are not less than one-quarter of the
length of the brick from those in adjacent courses.
A bond is usually identified by the appearance of the external
face of the wall.

METHODOFBONDING
Various methods of bonding are used giving rise to different bond
patterns which have special name.

Header Bond - it has only headers in each course of a wall.

Normally used in the construction of footings and walls with
sharply curve. (See Figure 29)

Figure 29: Header Bond

Stretcher Bond
It has only stretchers in each course of the wall, except at
stopped end of a wall at each alternate course, a half bat brick is
placed. (See Figure 30)

Figure 30: Stretcher Bond

English Bond
It has courses of headers alternate with courses of stretchers. In this
bonding, every alternate header in a course sits centrally over the
joint between two stretchers in the joint, except at certain stopped
end. In each heading course a queen closer is placed next to the
quoin header, and the rest will be headers as shown in Figure 31.
Comparatively lack of straight joints therefore it gave this bond as
the strongest of all bonds. Use particularly in civil engineering work.

Figure 31: English Bond

Flemish Bond it comprises of alternate headers and

stretchers in each course as shown in Figure 32. There are two
kinds of Flemish bond :Double Flemish bond - both external and internal faces of the
wall have the characteristic appearance of Flemish;
Single Flemish bond - it has a facing of Flemish bond with a
backing of English bond. It has a large number of short
continuous vertical joints which occur in the longitudinal
joints.

Figure 32: Flemish Bond

Garden wall bond Suitable for garden and division, and be

of two forms, i.e. English garden wall bond and Flemish garden
wall bond.
English garden wall bond it has three or five courses of
stretchers to one course of headers. A queen closer is
introduced next to quoin header in the heading course. A header
is placed at the quoin of each middle (or alternate) course of
stretchers to give a necessary lap and face appearance of the
stretching bond can can be seen in Figure 33.

Figure 33: English Garden Wall Bond

Flemish garden wall bond

It has one header to every three or five stretchers in each course.
A three-quarter bat is placed next to quoin in every alternate
course, and a header is laid over the middle of each central
stretcher. (See Figure 34)

Figure 34: Flemish Garden Wall Bond

Dutch bond
Consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but
each stretching course begins at the quoin with a three-quarter
bat and every alternate stretching course have a header placed
next to the quoin three-quarter bat. Figure 35 shows the Dutch
bond.

Figure 35: Dutch Bond

TERMSUSEDINBRICKWORK
Arris

anangleoredgeofabrick.

Bed

thelower215mmby102.5mmsurfaceofabrickwhenplacedin
position,ortheundersideofthebrick.

Header

theendor102.5mmby65mmsurfaceofabrickandlaywithits
lengthperpendiculartothefaceofthewall.

Stretcher

thesideor215mmby65mmsurfaceofabrickandlaywithits
greatestdimensionhorizontalanditsfaceparalleltothewall
face.
asurfaceofabricksuchasaheaderfaceandstretcherface;is
alsoappliedtoanexposedsurfaceofawall.

Face
Frog

ashallowsinkingorindentformedonratheroneorbothofthe
215mmby102.5mmfacesofabrick.

Bed Joints

isahorizontalmortarjointparalleltothebedsofthebrick.

Course

acompletehorizontallayerofbricksplusitsmortarbedding
joint.

Continuous
Vertical Joints or
Straight Joints

itcomesimmediatelyovereachotherintwoormoreconsecutive
courses.

Quoin

isaconnectionformbytwowalls(acornerorexternalangle)
whichmeetat90o.

Stopped or Closed
End

isasquareterminationtoawall.

Perpends

Isanimaginaryverticallineswhichincludeverticaljointsand
shouldbeperpendicularorplumb.

Junction

inbrickworkmeansaconnectionbetweentwowalls,i.e.T-junctions
andcross-junctionsorintersections.

Lap

the horizontaldistancewhichonebrickprojects beyondavertical

jointinthecourseimmediatelyaboveorbelowit.

Racking back

The stepped arrangement formed during construction of a wall

whenoneportionisbuilttoagreaterheightthanthatadjoining.

Toothing

each alternate course at the end of a wall projects in order to

receive or to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued at a
laterdate.
aportionofanordinarybrickwiththecutmadeacrossthewidth
ofthebrick,usuallygreaterthanonequarter.Therearethreetypes
ofbat,i.e.halfbat,three-quarterbatandbevelledbats.

Bat

Closer

Queen closer

a portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made longitudinally.

Commontypesofcloserarequeencloser,bevelledcloserandmitred
closer.
obtainedbycuttinganordinarybrickintotwohalfbatsandusually
placednexttothefirstbrickinaheadercourse.

Arrises

Frog

Header Face
Stretcher Face

Bed Face

Quoin
Racking Back
Mortar Joints
Quoin Headers

Queen Closers

Stretching
course
Heading course
Bed Joints
Toothing
Vertical Joints

Figure 27: Terms in Brick and Brickwork

Pilaster also known as attached pier is a thickened wall

section or a vertical support built contiguous with and
forming a part of the brick wall. Used for stiffening brick
walls and to provide all or part of their lateral support. It
functions primarily as flexural member.(See figure 36)
Piers also known as pillars or column in brickwork used to support
concentrated loads or to strengthen walls.
Pilaster
Figure 36: Pilaster

DAMPNESS PROTECTION
There are many ways that dampness can penetrate into a
building through the brick wall, and they are : By the rain beating against the external walls and
absorbed the water to show dampness on the internal
walls.
Moisture rising up the walls at or near to the base by
capillary action and moves up the wall and enter the
building above the ground floor level.
Moisture penetrates down into the head of the wall and
moving down into the building below the roof level.
The above can be overcome by placing a suitable damp-proof
course in the thickness of the wall.

DAMPPROOFCOURSE(D.P.C)

It is An impervious material place horizontally or

vertically to provide a barrier to the passage of
moisture from the external source into the wall of
the building or from part of the structure to
another.
Damp-proof course (dpc) is normally placed at a
distance of 150mm to 300mm above the ground
level

The materials to be used as d.p.c should satisfy the

criteria as stipulated in BS 743, and they are :1. should be completely impervious,
2. should be durable and long lasting,
3. should be of thin membrane or sheets so as
to prevent disfiguration of the wall,
4. should be strong to support load imposed on
it without exuding out from the wall,
5. should be of flexible material and able to
deflect accordingly with any settlement without
fracturing.

DPC
G.L

Arrow indicate
weep holes
Figure 37: Damp-proof course in brick wall and sills
around timber window.

Table 7: Materials used for damp-proof course

Lead

It is very costly but effective damp-proof course. It is very

durableandflexiblematerialandavailableinrollsofthinsheets
with varying widths, therefore large irregular shapes with few
joints can be produced. However, lead liable to exude under
heavy loadings and should be scratched as it does not adhere
readilytomortar.

Copper

Itisalsoaveryexcellentdamp-proofcourseandshouldhavea
minimumthicknessof0.25mm.Availableinrollsofthinsheets,
lappedandjointedasdescribedforlead.

Mastic Asphalt

Anexcellentdamp-proofcourseanditisapplied in situintwo
layers with a total thickness of 25mm and it is jointless. This
damp-proof course is impervious, indestructible and does not
fracture if on account of unequal settlement or cracks in the
brickwork.

Bitumen

Itcomesintheformoffeltorrollsusuallytobrickwidthsand
canbelaidquicklywithmin.numberofjoints.Therearemany
varietiesavailablesuchashessian,fibre,asbestos&leadwhich
is impregnated with and covered by a layer of hot natural
bitumen,and sandedonthesurfacetopreventthelayersfrom
adhering to each other. Should be lapped 75mm where joints
occurandlappedfullwidthatallcrossingsandangles.

Polythene

It is of low density black polythene sheet of single

thickness not less than 0.5mm thick. It is easily laid,
however care should be taken when lay as it is easily torn
and punctured.

Slate

It is very efficient damp-proof course. It is laid in two

courses set breaking the joint embedded in cement mortar
with a minimum length of 230mm long and thickness not
less than 4mm thick. It has limited flexibility and liable to
be broken if unequal settlement occurs, but are
impervious and very durable.

Bricks

Effective damp-proof course and are built in two courses

in cement mortar. It should comply with the requirement
of BS 3921.

METAL ANCHORS FOR BRICK WALLS

Metal anchors are positioned in the brick walls to provide
structural integrity of the walls.
It will attach a wall to its supports, either to another wall, floor,
beam, column or other structural support.

Ties are one of the examples of a metal anchor which used to

hold a brick walls together, whilst fasteners attach other
building elements to walls.
Ties must be strong for it purpose, be non-corrodible (copper
or galvanized wrought iron) and normally shape so that water
from the outer leaf of the wall will not pass along them to the
inner leaf.

Double Triangle

Twisted

Polypropylene
Tie

Butterfly

b. Adjustable brick
ties

a. Twisted cavity ties

Z-tie for use

Rectangular tie
with solid
with crimp or
bricks only Rectangular tie
drip for cavity
wall
c. Fixed unit
ties
Figure:Ties

Brickwork is reinforced by introducing steelorwroughtiron in the

form of flat or rod bars, woven wire or expanded metal. This
reinforcement is placed in joints or in grooves or perforations in
bricks and capable of resisting compression, tensile and shear
stresses.
In order to improves the longitudinal bond of the wall, a
reinforcingmetalmeshedstrips, best known as Exmet is placed
at the bed of every third course of the wall height. It is made from
thin rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched by a machined to
a diamond meshwork form.
It is normally used in walls and partitions to resist both horizontal
and vertical pressure.
The strips should lap at intersection and at joint with a lapped of 75
mm.

Brickwork can be reinforced using rodwirereinforcement. It

is used vertically to strengthen walls of reduced thickness and
to resist lateral stresses.
Brickforce is a welded reinforcement used to improve
resistance of the horizontal pressures occurring from either
side.
Wallforce is use to strengthen cavity wall. (See Figure 39)
Bricktor which is a stainless steel or galvanized wire mesh is
used in brick walls to bond and strengthen corners and
intersections of the walls. (See Figure 39)

b. Brickforce

a. Wallforce

c. Bricktor
e.Rodreinforcement
Figure39:Reinforcedbrickwalls

d.Exmet