Seismic waves and seismic rays

A wave front is a surface connecting all points of equal travel time

from the source.
Rays are normal to the wavefront, and they point in the direction
of wave propagation.
While the mathematical description of the wavefronts is rather
complex, that of the rays is simple. For many applications is it
convenient to consider rays rather than wavefronts.

Seismic waves and seismic rays

It is important to understand that the two approaches are not
exactly equivalent.
Consider a planar wavefront passing through a slow anomaly. Can
this anomaly be detected by a seismic network located on the
opposite side?

QuickTime and a
Compact Video decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

With increasing distance from the anomaly, the wavefronts

undergo healing. This effect is often referred to as the Wavefront
Healing.

On the other hand, according to the ray theory the travel time from
point A to B is given by:

B
A

T =

1
dS
C(S)

where dS is the distance measured along the ray, and C is the

seismic velocity.
Thus, a ray traveling through a slow anomaly will arrive after a ray
traveling through the rest of the medium.

Reflection and refraction from a horizontal velocity contrast

Consider a seismic wave generated near the surface and
recorded by a seismic station at some distance.

In the simple case of a 2 layer medium, the following arrivals are

expected:
the arrival of the direct wave.
the arrival of the reflected wave.
the arrival of the refracted wave.

Reflection and refraction from a horizontal velocity contrast

Snapshots of
numerically simulated
wave fronts: 65 ms

Figures from www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/

Reflection and refraction from a horizontal velocity contrast

Snapshots of
numerically simulated
wave fronts: 80 ms

Figures from www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/

Reflection and refraction from a horizontal velocity contrast

Snapshots of
numerically simulated
wave fronts: 110 ms

Figures from www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/

Reflection and refraction from a horizontal velocity contrast

A snapshot after 140 ms

Identify the reflected, refracted and the direct waves on this plot.
You may view the movie at:
www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MODULES/SEIS/NOTES/Hmovie.html

(1) The travel time of the direct wave is simply the horizontal
distance divided by the seismic velocity of the top layer.

X
t=
V0
This is a surface wave!
(2) The travel time of the reflected wave is given by:

X
2
2
t=
h0 +
2
V0
2

2h0 X
t = +
V0 V
0
2

So the travel time curve of this ray is a hyperbola!

3. The refracted wave traveling along the interface between the

upper and the lower layer is a special case of Snell's law, for
which the refraction angle equals 900. We can write:

sinic sin90
V0
=
sinic =
V0
V1
V1
where ic is the critical angle. The refracted ray that is returned to
the surface is a head wave.

The travel time of the refracted wave is:

2h0
X 2h0 tanic
t=
+
=
V0 cosic
V1
2h0 V12 V02 X
+
V0V1
V1
So this is an equation of a
straight line whose slope is
equal to 1/V1, and the intercept
is a function of the layer
thickness and the velocities
above and below the interface.

Refracted waves start arriving after a critical distance Xcrit, but they
overtake the direct waves at a crossover distance Xco.
The critical distance is:

X crit = 2h0 tanic

The crossover distance is:
2
1

2
0

X co X co 2h0 V V
=
+

V0
V1
V1V0
X co = 2h0

V1 + V0
V1 V0

Question: At distances greater than Xco , the refracted waves arrive

before the direct waves even though they travel a greater distance
- why?

Reflection in a multi-layered medium

For a single layer we obtained:

were:

T0 = 2h0 /V0 .

X
2
2
T = T0 + ,
V
0

Similarly, for a multi-layered medium:

where : T0,n

X
2
2
Tn = T0,n +
,
V
rms,n

2hn
2
=
and : Vrms,n
n Vn

2hn
V V
n
= n
.
2hn
V
n
n
2
n

On a T2-versus-X2 plot, the reflectors appear as a set of straight

lines with slopes that are inversely proportional to V2rms,n .

Reflection in a multi-layered medium

2

X
2
2
Tn = T0,n +

V
rms,n

On a T2-versus-X2 plot, the

reflectors appear as a set of

straight lines with slopes that are

inversely proportional to V2rms,n .

The ray parameter and the horizontal slowness

Consider a plane wave that propagates in the k direction. The
apparent velocity c1, measured at the surface is larger than the
actual velocity, c.

c
c1 =
C1 > C
sini

ds cdt c
sini =
=
=
dx1 c1dt c1
sini 1
P
=
c
c1
Thus, the ray parameter may be thought as the horizontal
slowness.

Snells law for radial earth

The radial earth ray parameter is given by:

R sini
Pradial
,
V
where R is the radius. Next we present a geometrical proof
showing that Pradial is constant along the ray.

From the two triangles:

B = R2 sin i1= R1 sini1

From Snells law:

sin i1 V1
=
sini2 V2

R sini
?
= constant = rayparameter
V

How can P be measured?

QN VdT /2
sini =
=

QP Rd /2
dT R sini
=
=P
d
V

So P is the slope of the travel time curve (T-versus-D). While the

units of the flat earth ray parameter are s/m, that of the radial
earth are s/rad.

The bottoming point

With this definition for the ray parameter in a spherical earth we
can get a simple expression that relates P to the minimum radius
along the ray path. This point is known as the turning point or the
bottoming point.

Rmin sin90
Rmin
=
=P
V (Rmin )
V (Rmin )

Travel time curves

The ray parameter of a seismic wave arriving at a certain distance
can thus be determined from the slope of the travel time curve.

The straight line tangent to the travel time curve at can be

written as a function of the intercept time and the slope P.

dT
dT
P=
T() = +
= + P.
d
d
P, the local slope of the travel time curve, contains information
about the horizontal slowness, and the intercept time, , contains
information about the layer thickness.

Additional important information comes from the amplitude of the

reflected and refracted waves (this and additional aspects of travel
time curves will be discussed next week).