Digital Signal Processing

By
Dr. Mukhtiar Ali Unar

Discrete-Time System Realizations

Realization: A realization is a hardware or
software configuration that implements the
system.
(a) Direct Form Realizations:
(i) Direct form 1
We generate what is called a Direct Form I
Realization by directly implementing the
system difference equation
k

y[n] ( a i )y[n i ] b i x[n i ]

i 1

(1)

i 0

The result is shown in Fig. 1.

b0

x[n]

+
y[n]

z-1

z-1
b1

-a1
z-1

z-1
b2

z-1

bm-1

bm

-a2

-ak-1
z-1
-ak

Example 1: Draw the block diagram representation

for Direct Form 1 of the system having the
following transfer function:
1.2 4.8z 2
H( z )
1 0.9z 1 0.28z 2 0.16z 3

Solution:

1.2

+
z-1

z-1

0.9
z-1

z-1

+
-4.8

-0.28
0.16

z-1
4

(ii) Direct Form II

The z-transform of the system transfer function
that correspond to difference equation (1) is
m

H( z )

b
i 0

z i

a
i 1

(2)

z i

To generate the Direct Form II realization, we

re-write (2) as
m

Y( z ) H( z ) X( z )

b z

i 0
k

1 ak z i

i
(3)
b
z

i
W( z )
i 0

X( z )

i 1

where W( z )

X( z )
k

1 a i z i

(4)

i 1

We then re-write (4) in the form

W( z ) X( z ) (a i )z i W( z )
i 1

Computation of the inverse z-transforms of W(z)

yields
k

w[n] x[n] a i w[(n i )]

i 1

(5)

and
m

y[n] b i w[n i ]
i0

(6)

Equations (5) and (6) define the Direct Form II

Realization represented by the block diagram
Shown in the next slide.
6

x[n]

w[n]

b0

b1

b2

bm

y[n]

z-1
+

-a1
z-1

-a2

-ak-1
z-1

-ak
7

Example2:
Draw the block diagram representation for Direct
Form II realization of the system having
transfer function:
1 .2 4 .8 z 2
1 0.9z 1 0.28z 2 0.16z 3

Solution:
+
x[n]

1.2

y[n]

z-1
+

0.9
z-1

-0.28

-4.8

z-1
0.16

(b) Cascade Realization:

We illustrate this realization with the help of an
example:
Example 3: Find a cascade realization of the system
characterized by the transfer function
4z 3 16z 2 4z 24
H( z ) 4
2z 1.6z 3 0.5z 2 0.1z

Solution: We factor the numerator

denominator to obtain
2 z 1 z 2 z 3
H( z )
z z 0.5 z 2 0.3z 0.1
or

z
1

H( z ) 2 z
1
1 0.5z

1 5 z 1 6 z 2

1
2
1 0.3z 0.1z

and

The block diagram representation of the cascade

realization corresponding to this transfer function
Is given below:
y[n]
x[n] 2

z-1

+
z-1

z-1
-0.5

-1

-0.3

z-1
-0.1

10

(c) Parallel Realization:

Example4: Find the parallel realization of the system of
Example 3.
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator

by 0.5 and factor the denominator. The result is

2z 3 8z 2 2z 12
H( z )
z z 0.5 z 2 0.3z 0.1

The partial fraction expansion is

1

225

1015

175
z
H( z ) 240z 1 1240

1
1 0.5z
1 0.3z 1 0.1z 2

Now we can realize the system as shown on the next

slide.
11

z-1

-240
1240

x[n]

-225

y[n]

z-1
-0.5
+

-1015
z-1

-0.3
-0.1

-175

z-1
12

State-Space Representation

State of a system: We define the state of a system at time n 0

as the amount of information that must be provided at time
n0, which, together with the input signal x[n] for n n0,
uniquely determine the output of the system for all n n0.
This representation transforms an nth order difference
equation into a set of first order difference equations.
State space representation is not unique.
Provides complete information about all the internal signals
of a system.
Suitable for both linear and non-linear systems.
Software/hardware implementation is easy.
A time domain approach.
This type of representation is proved highly useful for
advanced DSP and Control applications.
13

Many techniques are available for obtaining state space

representations of discrete time systems.
We describe one of these techniques with the help of an
example:
Example 5: Find the state space representation of the
following system:
Y( z )
z 1
2
U( z )
z 1.3z 0.4

Solution:
Multiplying and dividing by z-2X(z) where X(z)
is a dummy variable, we get
Y( z )
z 1
z 2 X( z )
z 1 X( z ) z 2 X( z )

U( z ) z 2 1.3z 0.4 z 2 X( z )
X( z ) 1.3z 1 0.4z 2

Now

Y(z) = z-1X(z) + z-2X(z)

(7)
U(z) = X(z) + 1.3z-1X(z) + 0.4z-2X(z)
14
-1
-2
X(z) = U(z) 1.3z X(z) 0.4z X(z) (8)

Draw a block diagram/signal flow graph (SGF) of

(7) and (8). Such a graph is shown below:
1
u

z-1
-1.3

z-1
x2[n]

1
x1[n]

-0.4
Define the state variables x1[n] and x2[n] at the
output of each delay, as shown above. Now the
state equations are:
x1[n+1] = x2[n]
x2[n+1] = -0.4x1[n] 1.3x2[n] + u[n]
and the output equation is y[n] = x [n] + x [n]

15

In matrix form we write

State equation:
1
x1[n 1] 0
x [n 1] 0.4 1.3

x1[n] 0
x [n] 1 u[n]
2

Output equation:
y[n ] 1

x1 [n ]

x
[
n
]
2

Example 6: Repeat example 5 for the following

transfer function:
0.02z 2 0.5z 0.025
z 3 2 .6 z 2 1 .9 z 0 .4

Solution: Multiplying numerator and denominator

By z-3X(z), we get
16

Y( z ) 0.02z 2 0.5z 0.025 z 3 X( z )

3
3
2
U( z ) z 2.6z 1.9z 0.4 z X( z )

or
Y( z )
0.02z 1 X( z ) 0.5z 2 X( z ) 0.025z 3 X( z )

U( z ) X( z ) 2.6z 1 X( z ) 1.9z 2 X( z ) 0.4z 3 X( z )

Therefore,
Y(z) = 0.02z-1X(z) + 0.5z-2X(z) + 0.025z-3X(z)

(9)

and U(z) = X(z) 2.6z-1X(z) + 1.9z-2X(z) 0.4z-3X(z)

Or
X(z) = U(z) + 2.6z-1X(z) 1.9z-2X(z) + 0.4z-3X(z) (10)
The corresponding SFG is shown on the next slide.
17

0.02

u[n]

z-1 x3[n] z-2

0.5
-3
z
x1[n]
x2[n]
y[n]
0.025

2.6
-1.9
-0.4
Introduce the three state variables x1[n], x2[n] and
x3[n] at the output of the delays as shown above.
The state equations are, therefore, given by
x1[n+1] = x2[n]
x2[n+1] = x3[n]
x3[n+1] = -0.4x1[n] 1.9x2[n] + 2.6x3[n] + u[n] 18

and the output equation is

y[n] = 0.025x1[n] + 0.5x2[n] + 0.02x3[n]
In matrix form, we write
1
0
x1 [n 1]
0
x [n 1] 0

0
1
2

x 3 [n 1]
0.4 1.9 2.6
x1 [n]
y[n] 0.025 0.5 0.02 x 2 [n]
x 3 [n]

x1 [n] 0
x [n] 0 u[n]
2
x 3 [n] 1

In general, systems can be represented by the

Following state and output equations:

x[n+1] = Ax[n] + Bu[n]

y[n] = Cx[n] + Du[n]
where A, B, C and D are matrices.

19

State Space Representation and Transfer

Function Matrix
The state space representation of an nth order linear time
invariant system with r inputs and and m outputs can be
given by
x[k+1] = Ax[k] + Bu[k]
y[k] = Cx[k] + Du[k]
where x[n] is an n-vector, u[n] is an r-vector, y[n] is an m-vector,
A is an n n matrix, B is an n r matrix, C is an m n matrix
and D is an m r matrix.
Taking the z-transform of the above equations (ignoring initial
conditions) we get
zX(z) = AX(z) + BU(z)
(11)
Y(z) = CX(z) + DU(z)
(12)
From (11) X(z) = (zI A)-1BU(z). Putting X(z) in (12) we get
Y(z) = C(zI A)-1BU(z) + DU(z)
20

Y( z )
1
C zI A B D
U( z )

(13)

This is called the Transfer matrix of the system.

Example 7: Find the transfer function of the
following discrete time system:
x1[n 1] 1 0.4323
x [n 1]

0
0
.
1353

2

y[n] 1

Solution:

x1[n] 0.2838
u[n]
x [n]

2 0.4323

x1 [k ]
0

x
[
k
]
2

1 0.4323
A

0
0
.
1353

0.2838
B

0
.
4323

C 1 0

D=0
The transfer function of the system is

21

 1 0 1 0.4323 z 1 0.4323
zI A z

0
1
0
0
.
1353
0
z

0
.
1353

Now
z 1 0.4323
Y( z )
1
C zI A B D 1 0

U( z )
0
z

0
.
1353

0.4323
z 1 z 0.1353
1
z 0.1353

1 0

1
z 1

0.2838z 0.1485

z 1 z 0.1353

0.2838
0.4323

0.2838

0.4323

0.2838z 1 0.1485z 2

1
1
1 z 1 0.1353z

What do you say about stability of this system?

22