Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
TREATMENT
Presented by
Sampling considerations
Session 1:Prerequisite
laboratory practices and
principles
Significant figures,
Addition & Subtraction
Description
Nonrandom /conveni Risks the possibility that the estimates will be biased.
ence sampling
Simple random
sampling
Systematic random
sampling
Stratified random
sample
Limited,
Farjana
Urmi
ACIACI
Limited,
Kh.Kh.
Farjana
Urmi
Method Validation
All methods are appropriately validated as specified under Validation
of Compendial Methods 1225 .
To construct the upper and lower control limits of the chart, we use the following
formulas:
Where, x= mean of the sample means or a target value set for the process
z = number of normal standard deviations
x = standard deviation of the sample means
= / n
= population standard deviation
n = sample size
Accurate &
Precise
Precise but
not
Accurate
Accurate but
not
Precise
14.8
14.7
14.8
14.7
14.8
Student
B
14.7
14.2
14.6
14.6
14.8
Student
C
14.4
14.4
14.5
14.4
14.5
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
Student
A
14.8
14.7
14.8
14.7
14.8
Student
B
14.7
14.2
14.6
14.6
14.8
Student
C
14.4
14.4
14.5
14.4
14.5
OUTLYING RESULTS
Outliers: occasionally, observed analytical results are very different from those
expected. Aberrant, anomalous, contaminated, discordant, spurious, suspicious or
wild observations; and flyers, rogues, and mavericks are properly called outlying
results. Like all laboratory results, these outliers must be documented, interpreted,
and managed. Such results may be accurate measurements of the entity being
measured, but are very different from what is expected.
Outliers, in statistics, refer to relatively small or large values which are considered
to be different from, and not belong to, the main body of data. The problem of what
to do with outliers is a constant dilemma facing research scientists. If the cause of
an outlier is known, resulting from an obvious error, for example, the value can be
omitted from the analysis and tabulation of the data.
OUTLYING RESULTS
Factors to be considered when investigating an outlying result include
but are not limited to
Human error, instrumentation error, calculation error, and product or component
deficiency. If an assignable cause that is not related to a product or component
deficiency can be identified, then retesting may be performed on the same
sample, if possible, or on a new sample.
The precision and accuracy of the method, the Reference Standard, process
trends, and the specification limits should all be examined. Data may be
invalidated, based on this documented investigation, and eliminated from
subsequent calculations.
ACI
Limited,
Kh.
Farjana
Urmi
ACI
Limited,
Kh.
Farjana
Urmi
OUTLYING RESULTS
Outlier identification is the use of statistical significance tests to confirm that
the values are inconsistent with the known or assumed statistical model.
When used appropriately, outlier tests are valuable tools for pharmaceutical
laboratories. Several tests exist for detecting outliers. Examples illustrating three of
these procedures, the Extreme Studentized Deviate (ESD) Test, Dixon's Test, and
Hampel's Rule.
Outlier rejection is the actual removal of the identified outlier from the data set.
However, an outlier test cannot be the sole means for removing an outlying result
from the laboratory data.
All data, especially outliers, should be kept for future review. Unusual data, when
seen in the context of other historical data, are often not unusual after all but reflect
the influences of additional sources of variation.
ACI Limited, Kh. Farjana Urmi
OUTLYING RESULTS
An outlier test may be useful as part of the evaluation of the significance of that
result, along with other data. Outlier tests have no applicability in cases where the
variability in the product is what is being assessed, such as content uniformity,
dissolution, or release-rate determination. In these applications, a value
determined to be an outlier may in fact be an accurate result of a non uniform
product.
In summary, the rejection or retention of an apparent outlier can be a serious
source of bias. An outlier test can never take the place of a thorough laboratory
investigation. Rather, it is performed only when the investigation is inconclusive
and no deviations in the manufacture or testing of the product were noted.
OUTLYING RESULTS
Given the following set of 10 measurements: 100.0, 100.1, 100.3, 100.0, 99.7,
99.9, 100.2, 99.5, 100.0, and 95.7 (mean = 99.5, standard deviation = 1.369) are
there any outliers?
Dixon-Type Tests
Stage 1 (n= 10)The results are ordered on the basis of their magnitude (i.e., Xn
is the largest observation, Xn1 is the second largest, etc., and X1 is the smallest
observation). Dixon's Test has different ratios based on the sample size (in this
example, with n = 10), to declare X1 an outlier, the following ratio, r11, is calculated
by the formula:
OUTLYING RESULTS
If, r11 > Qtable, where Qtable is a reference value corresponding to the sample
size and confidence level, then reject the questionable point. Note that only
one point may be rejected from a data set using this test.
ACI
ACILimited,
Limited,Kh.
Kh.Farjana
FarjanaUrmi
Urmi
where sp, the pooled standard deviation, is calculated from the two sample
standard deviations s, and s,, as follows:
ACI Limited, Kh. Farjana Urmi
Test at the 5 percent probability value if the new method mean is significantly different from the
standard reference mean.
At the 5 percent level, the tabulated value of t for (n, + n, - 2), i.e. nine degrees of freedom, is
2.26. Since t calculated 2.66> tabulated 2.26, there is a significant difference, at the specified
probability, between the mean results of the two methods.
ACI Limited, Kh. Farjana Urmi
t-Test
Looks at differences between two groups on some variable of interest
Ex: Do males and females differ in the amount of hours they spend
shopping in a given month?
ANOVA
Tests the significance of group differences between two or more groups
Only determines that there is a difference between groups, but doesnt
tell which is different
Ex: Do SAT scores differ for low-, middle-, and high-income students?
What is ANOVA?
A statistical method for testing whether two or more dependent
variable means are equal (i.e., the probability that any differences in
means across several groups are due solely to sampling error).
Variables in ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):
Dependent variable is metric.
Independent variable(s) is nominal with two or more levels
also called treatment, manipulation, or factor.
One-way ANOVA: only one independent variable with two or more
levels.
Two-way ANOVA: two independent variables each with two or
more levels.
Thank you