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PSYCHOLOGI

CAL
FOUNDATION
S OF
EDUCATION

SCHOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGY

STRUCTURALISM
Held by Wilhelm Wundt and
Titchener.
All consciousness of facts and
phenomena of experiences are
based upon the operation of the
nervous system particularly the
brain. Then follows an abstract
analysis of the mental structures
that are operating.

FUNCTIONALISM
William James is the main
proponent.
Mental process should be
regarded as functions or
operations
of
the
organism
in
its
adaptation
to
and

BEHAVIORISM
Definition: School of psychology that
studies only observable and measurable
behavior.
John Watson:
You cannot define conscious any more than you can
define a soul.
You cannot locate or measure consciousness, and
therefore it cannot be the object of scientific study.
Studies observable, measurable behavior and nothing
more.
Ivan Pavlovs Classical Conditioning
Watsons Experiment with Little Albert and the white
rats (happy 11 month old conditioned to be afraid of
white rats)

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Definition: School of Psychology
that studies how people perceive
and experience objects as whole
patterns
Short livedpeople didnt really
see its potential.
Approaches structuralism from a
different angle. Example: When we
see a tree, we see just that, a tree,
not a series of branches.

PSYCHOANALYSIS
The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include the following:
Human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely
determined by irrational drives;
Those drives are largely unconscious;
Attempts to bring those drives into awareness meet
psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms;
Beside the inherited constitution of personality, one's
development is determined by events in early childhood;
Conflicts between conscious view of reality and unconscious
(repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as
neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression etc.;
The liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is
achieved through bringing this material into the consciousness
(via e.g. skilled guidance).[1]

Conceived by Sigmund Freud

THE ECLECTIC FACTORS


ASSOCIATED WITH THE
MENTAL AND
BEHAVIORAL
DEVELOPMENT

REFLEXES
These
are
inborn
automatic responses
to simple localized
stimulation involving
particular
muscles
and parts of the

DRIVES, NEEDS,
WANTS, URGES

These
are
inborn
urges
and
tendencies and wants
Creates tensions in the individual
Determines
the
actions
and
reactions of an individual towards
certain situation.
Gives rise to ambitions which
motivate
individuals
to
exert
efforts to attain their goals.

CAPACITIES AND
SPECIAL APTITUDES
Includes all those
latent potentialities
that an individual
possesses which are
developed
through
the
process
of

TEMPERAMENT OR
EMOTION

Refers
to
certain
emotional
predispositions of an
individual.

AND
DEVELOPME
NT

GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT

Growth is a change in a particular


phase of the organism
Development is series of a
number of related and continuous
change in a system, extending over
a considerable time; especially
enduring and sustaining particular
changes in an organism from its
origin to maturity and death.
Growth increase in size and

OF
DEVELOPME
NT

FREUDS
PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY OF
All human beings pass through a series
DEVELOPMENT
of psychosexual stages. Each stage is
dominated by the development of
sensitivity in a particular erogenous
zone of the body. Every stage assumes a
particular conflict from the individual
that must be reserved before going to
the next higher stage. Individuals who
enjoy the pleasure of a given stage,
might not be willing to move on the
later
stage.
Individuals
experience
fixation
at
a
certain
period
of

STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
1. Oral stage birth to one year
Infants gratification for mother. Eating
is the main source of satisfaction
2. Anal stage one to three years
Toilet training
3. Phallic stage three to six years
Pleasure from the sex organs
4. Latency
period

six
years
to
adolescence
Children turn their attention to people
outside their families

STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
5.
Genital stage adolescence and
beyond
masturbation of the sex organs, sex
hormones production, reactivation of the
genital zones (sensual pleasure), looking
for future partner, prepares for marriage
and adult responsibility

ERIKSONS
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

Erikson's
stages
of
psychosocial
development
as
articulated
by
Erik Erikson
explain
eight
stages
through which a healthily developing
human should pass from infancy to late
adulthood. In each stage the person
confronts, and hopefully masters, new
challenges.
Each stage builds on the successful
completion of earlier stages. The
challenges of stages not successfully
completed may be expected to reappear

ERIKSONS
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

However, mastery of a stage is not required to


advance to the next stage. Erikson's stage
theory characterizes an individual advancing
through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and
sociocultural
forces.
Each
stage
is
characterized by a psycho social crisis of these
two conflicting forces (as shown in the table
below).
If
an
individual
does
indeed
successfully reconcile these forces (favoring
the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he
or she emerges from the stage with the
corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant
enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs.

ERIKSONS
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

However, mastery of a stage is not required to


advance to the next stage. Erikson's stage
theory characterizes an individual advancing
through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and
sociocultural
forces.
Each
stage
is
characterized by a psycho social crisis of these
two conflicting forces (as shown in the table
below).
If
an
individual
does
indeed
successfully reconcile these forces (favoring
the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he
or she emerges from the stage with the
corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant
enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs.

Hopes: Trust vs.


Mistrust
(Oral-sensory, Birth-2
Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
years)
The first stage of Erik
Erikson's theory centers around
the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and
this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as
defined by Erikson is "an essential truthfulness of others
as well as a fundamental sense of one's own
trustworthiness."[4] The infant depends on the parents,
especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. The
child's relative understanding of world and society come
from the parents and their interaction with the child. If
the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and
dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will
be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a
secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs
a sense of mistrust will result.[5] Development of
mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion,

Hopes: Trust vs.


Mistrust
(Oral-sensory, Birth-2
According
to
Erik
Erikson,
the
major
years)
developmental task
in infancy is to learn
whether or not other people, especially
primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic
needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of
food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns
trust- that others are dependable and reliable.
If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive,
the infant instead learns mistrust- that the
world is in an undependable, unpredictable,
and possibly a dangerous place. While
negative,
having
some
experience
with
mistrust allows the infant to gain an
understanding of what constitutes dangerous

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame


& Doubt
(Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)
Existential Question: Is It OK to Be Me?
As the child gains control over eliminative
functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still
provide a strong base of security from which
the child can venture out to assert their will.
The parents' patience and encouragement
helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at
this age like to explore the world around them
and they are constantly learning about their
environment. Caution must be taken at this
age while children may explore things that are
dangerous to their health and safety.

Will: Autonomy vs. Shame


& Doubt (Muscular-Anal,
2-4
years)
At this age, children develop their first
interests. For example, a child who
enjoys music may like to play with the
radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors
may be interested in animals and plants.
Highly restrictive parents, however, are
more likely to instill in the child a sense
of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new
challenges. As they gain increased
muscular coordination and mobility,
toddlers become capable of satisfying
some of their own needs. They begin to

Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt


(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool,
4-5 years)

Existential Question: Is it OK for Me to Do,


Move, and Act?
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of
undertaking, planning and attacking a task for
the sake of just being active and on the move.
The child is learning to master the world
around them, learning basic skills and
principles of physics. Things fall down, not up.
Round things roll. They learn how to zip and
tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage,
the child wants to begin and complete their
own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing
new emotion. They may feel guilty over things
that logically should not cause guilt. They may

Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt


(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool,
4-5 years)

The development of courage and independence


are what set preschoolers, ages three to six
years of age, apart from other age groups.
Young children in this category face the
challenge of initiative versus guilt. As
described in Bee and Boyd (2004),[5] the child
during this stage faces the complexities of
planning and developing a sense of judgment.
During this stage, the child learns to take
initiative and prepare for leadership and goal
achievement roles. Activities sought out by a
child in this stage may include risk-taking
behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or
riding a bike without a helmet; both these

Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt


(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool,
4-5 years)

Within
instances
requiring
initiative, the child may also
develop negative behaviors. These
behaviors are a result of the child
developing a sense of frustration
for not being able to achieve a goal
as planned and may engage in
behaviors that seem aggressive,
ruthless, and overly assertive to
parents.
Aggressive
behaviors,

Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt


(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool,
4-5 years)

Preschoolers
are
increasingly
able
to
accomplish tasks on their own, and can start
new things. With this growing independence
comes many choices about activities to be
pursued. Sometimes children take on projects
they can readily accomplish, but at other times
they undertake projects that are beyond their
capabilities or that interfere with other
people's plans and activities. If parents and
preschool teachers encourage and support
children's efforts, while also helping them
make
realistic
and
appropriate
choices,
children develop initiative- independence in
planning and undertaking activities. But if,

Competence: Industry vs.


Inferiority
(Latency, 5-12 years)

Existential Question: Can I Make it in the


World of People and Things?
The aim to bring a productive situation
to completion gradually supersedes the
whims
and
wishes
of
play.
The
fundamentals
of
technology
are
developed. To lose the hope of such
"industrious" association may pull the
child back to the more isolated, less
conscious familial rivalry of the Oedipal
time.

Competence: Industry vs.


Inferiority (Latency, 5-12
years)
"Children at this age are becoming more aware

of
themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being
responsible, being good and doing it right." They are
now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and
Marotz (2003) [7] also list some perceptual cognitive
developmental traits specific for this age group.
Children grasp the concepts of space and time in more
logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding
of cause and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage,
children are eager to learn and accomplish more
complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also
get to form moral values, recognize cultural and
individual differences and are able to manage most of
their personal needs and grooming with minimal
assistance.[7] At this stage, children might express their
independence by talking back and being disobedient
and rebellious.

Competence: Industry vs.


Inferiority (Latency, 5-12
years
)
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as
critical for the development of self-confidence.
Ideally, elementary school provides many
opportunities for children to achieve the
recognition of teachers, parents and peers by
producing things- drawing pictures, solving
addition problems, writing sentences, and so
on. If children are encouraged to make and do
things and are then praised for their
accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate
industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks
until completed, and putting work before
pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or
punished for their efforts or if they find they

Competence: Industry vs.


Inferiority (Latency, 5-12
years)

At this age, children start recognizing


their special talents and continue to
discover interests as their education
improves. They may begin to choose to
do more activities to pursue that
interest, such as joining a sport if they
know they have athletic ability, or
joining the band if they are good at
music. If not allowed to discover own
talents in their own time, they will
develop a sense of lack of motivation,
low self esteem, and lethargy. They may

Fidelity: Identity vs. Role


Confusion (Adolescence,
13-19
years)
Existential Question:
Who Am
I and What Can I Be?
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they
appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued
confidence that the outer sameness and continuity
prepared in the future are matched by the sameness
and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as
evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to
settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In
later stages of Adolescence, the child develops a sense
of sexual identity. As they make the transition from
childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles
they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to
experience some role confusionmixed ideas and
feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit
into societyand may experiment with a variety of
behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-

Fidelity: Identity vs. Role


Confusion (Adolescence,
13-19
Erikson is credited
with coiningyears)
the term "Identity Crisis."
[8]

Each stage that came before and that follows has its own
'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition
from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary
because "Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms
many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not
met by these."[9] This turning point in human development
seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has
come to be' and 'the person society expects one to become'.
This emerging sense of self will be established by 'forging' past
experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the
eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the
crossroads:
What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special
sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of
anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in
a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood.
Youth is a time of radical changethe great body changes

Fidelity: Identity vs. Role


Confusion (Adolescence,
13-19
years)
Adolescents "are
confronted
by the need to re-establish
[boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of
an often potentially hostile world."[10] This is often
challenging since commitments are being asked for
before particular identity roles have formed. At this
point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but
society normally makes allowances for youth to "find
themselves," and this state is called 'the moratorium':
The problem of adolescence is one of role confusiona
reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his
mature years. Given the right conditionsand Erikson
believes these are essentially having enough space and
time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can
freely experiment and explorewhat may emerge is a
firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness
of who he or she is.[10]

Fidelity: Identity vs. Role


Confusion (Adolescence,
13-19
years)
As in other stages,
bio-psycho-social
forces are at work.
No matter how one has been raised, ones personal
ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Oftentimes, this
leads to conflict with adults over religious and political
orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding
for themselves is their career choice, and oftentimes
parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If
society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to
external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to
foreclose on experimentation and, therefore, true selfdiscovery. Once someone settles on a worldview and
vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect
of self-definition into a diverse society? According to
Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both
perspectives of What have I got? and What am I
going to do with it? he or she has established their
identity:[8]

Fidelity: Identity vs. Role


Confusion (Adolescence,
years)
Given that 13-19
the next stage
(Intimacy) is often
characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off
the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age
ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the
achievement of identity, since it may take many years to
become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity,
to feel that one has "come of age." In the biographies
Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson
determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30,
respectively:
Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for
persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further
notes that in our industrial society, identity formation
tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the
skills needed for adulthoods tasks in our technological
world. So we do not have an exact time span in which

Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation


(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 2040 years)

Existential Question: Can I Love?


The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around
the age of 30. At the start of this stage, identity vs. role
confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at
the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young
adults are still eager to blend their identities with
friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are
sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of
rejections such as being turned down or our partners
breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain, and to
some of us, rejection is painful; our egos cannot bear
the pain. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a
counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and
if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose
essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose
territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's
[11][12]

Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation


(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 2040 years)

Once people have established their


identities, they are ready to make
long-term commitments to others.
They become capable of forming
intimate, reciprocal relationships
(e.g. through close friendships or
marriage) and willingly make the
sacrifices and compromises that
such
relationships
require.
If
people cannot form these intimate

Care: Generativity vs.


Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 4064 years)
Existential Question:
Can I Make My Life
Count?
Generativity is the concern of guiding
the next generation. Socially-valued
work and disciplines are expressions of
generativity. Simply having or wanting
children does not in and of itself achieve
generativity.
The adult stage of generativity has
broad
application
to
family,
relationships,
work,
and
society.

Care: Generativity vs.


Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 4064 years)
During
middle
age
the
primary
developmental
task
is
one
of
contributing to society and helping to
guide future generations. When a
person makes a contribution during this
period, perhaps by raising a family or
working toward the betterment of
society, a sense of generativity- a sense
of productivity and accomplishmentresults. In contrast, a person who is selfcentered and unable or unwilling to help
society move forward develops a feeling

Central tasks of middle


adulthood

Express love through more than sexual contacts.


Maintain healthy life patterns.
Develop a sense of unity with mate.
Help growing and grown children to be responsible
adults.
Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
Accept children's mates and friends.
Create a comfortable home.
Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
Reverse roles with aging parents.
Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
Use leisure time creatively.

Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs.


Despair (Late adulthood,
65-death)
Existential Question: Is it OK to Have
Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior
citizens we tend to slow down our
productivity and explore life as a retired
person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and
are able to develop integrity if we see
ourselves as leading a successful life. If
we see our life as unproductive, or feel
that we did not accomplish our life
goals, we become dissatisfied with life

Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs.


Despair (Late adulthood,
65-death)
The final developmental task is
retrospection: people look back on their
lives and accomplishments. They
develop feelings of contentment and
integrity if they believe that they have
led a happy, productive life. They may
instead develop a sense of despair if
they look back on a life of
disappointments and unachieved goals.
This stage can occur out of the
sequence when an individual feels they
are near the end of their life (such as

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a
comprehensive theory about the nature and
development of human intelligence first
developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily known
as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it
deals with the nature of knowledge itself and
how humans come gradually to acquire,
construct, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims
the idea that cognitive development is at the
centre of human organism and language is
contingent on cognitive development. Below,
there is first a short description of Piaget's
views about the nature of intelligence and then
a description of the stages through which it

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous
change, and as such is defined in reference to the two
conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued
that
reality
involves
transformations
and
states.
Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or
person can undergo. States refer to the conditions or the
appearances in which things or persons can be found between
transformations. For example, there might be changes in
shape or form (for instance, liquids are reshaped as they are
transferred from one vessel to another, humans change in their
characteristics as they grow older), in size (e.g., a series of
coins on a table might be placed close to each other or far
apart) in placement or location in space and time (e.g., various
objects or persons might be found at one place at one time and
at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, that
if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions
to represent both the transformational and the static aspects
of reality. He proposed that operative intelligence is

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY

Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all


actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or
anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest.
Figurative intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence,
involving all means of representation used to retain in mind the states
(i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between
transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental
imagery, drawing, and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of
intelligence derive their meaning from the operative aspects of
intelligence, because states cannot exist independently of the
transformations that interconnect them. Piaget believed that the
figurative or the representational aspects of intelligence are
subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that
understanding essentially derives from the operative aspect of
intelligence.
At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood
and it changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget believed that
this process of understanding and change involves two basic functions:
Assimilation and accommodation.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Assimilation and accommodation
Through studying the field of education Piaget
focused on accommodation and assimilation.
Assimilation, one of two processes coined by
Jean Piaget, describes how humans perceive
and adapt to new information. It is the process
of
taking
ones
environment
and
new
information and fitting it into pre-existing
cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when
humans are faced with new or unfamiliar
information and refer to previously learned
information in order to make sense of it.
Accommodation, unlike assimilation is the
process of taking one's environment and new

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY

Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the


ways in which characteristics are constructed that
lead to specific types of thinking; this chart is
called
Cognitive
Development.
To
Piaget,
assimilation is integrating external elements into
structures of lives or environments or those we
could have through experience. It is through
assimilation that accommodation is derived.
Accommodation is imperative because it is how
people will continue to interpret new concepts,
schemas,
frameworks,
etc.[2]
Assimilation
is
different from accommodation because of how it
relates to the inner organism due to the
environment. Piaget believes that the human brain
has been programmed through evolution to bring

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Piaget's understanding is that these two
functions cannot exist without the other. To
assimilate an object into an existing mental
schema, one first needs to take into account or
accommodate to the particularities of this
object to a certain extent; for instance, to
recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple one
needs first to focus (accommodate) on the
contour of this object. To do this one needs to
roughly recognize the size of the object.
Development
increases
the
balance
or
equilibration between these two functions.
When in balance with each other, assimilation
and accommodation generate mental schemas

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four
stages
in
cognitive
development
which
"extends from birth to the acquisition of
language".[3] "In this stage, infants construct
an understanding of the world by coordinating
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with
physical,
motoric
actions.
Infants
gain
knowledge of the world from the physical
actions they perform on it. An infant
progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at
birth to the beginning of symbolic thought
toward the end of the stage. Piaget divided the
sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages" [4]:02
years, Infants just have senses-vision, hearing,

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
The first stage is called the Sensorimotor stage
(birth to about age 2). In this stage knowledge
of the world is limited (but developing)
because
its
based
on
physical
interactions/experiences. The child learns that
he is separate from his environment and that
aspects of his environment continue to exist
even though they may be outside the reach of
his senses. Behaviors are limited to simple
motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. In
this
stage
according
to
Piaget,
the
development of object permanence is one of
the most important accomplishments at the
sensorimotor stage. (Object permanence is a

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
By the end of the sensorimotor period,
objects are both separate from the self
and permanent. Object permanence is
the understanding that objects continue
to exist even when they cannot be seen,
heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense
of object permanence is one of the
infant's
most
important
accomplishments, according to Piaget.[4]

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Preoperational stage
The
Cognitive
Development
Approaches.
By
observing
sequences of play, Jean Piaget
was able to demonstrate that
towards the end of the second
year, a qualitatively new kind
of psychological functioning
occurs.[6]

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for
mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the
preoperational stage is sparse and logically
inadequate mental operations. During this
stage, the child learns to use and to represent
objects by images, words, and drawings.The
child is able to form stable concepts as well as
mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The
child however is still not able to perform
operations; tasks that the child can do
mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still
egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the
viewpoint of others. Two substages can be
formed from preoperative thought.[6]

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
The Symbolic Function Substage
Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. At 2-4 years
of age, kids cannot yet manipulate and transform
information in logical ways, but they now can think in
images and symbols. The child is able to formulate
designs of objects that are not present. Other examples
of mental abilities are language and pretend play.
Although there is an advance in progress, there are still
limitations
such
as
egocentrism
and
animism.
Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish
between their own perspective and that of another
person's. Children tend to pick their own view of what
they see rather than the actual view shown to others. An
example is an experiment performed by Piaget and
Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a mountain are shown
and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY

The Intuitive Thought Substage


Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to
become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of
primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of
reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they
are. Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children
realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are
unaware of how they know it.'Centration' and 'conservation'
are both involved in preoperative thought. Centration is the
act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to
the others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the
awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not
change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware
of conservation.Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child
is presented with two identical beakers containing the same
amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers have
the same amount of liquid.When one of the beakers is poured
into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger
than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers no

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Concrete operational stage
The concrete operational stage
is the third of four stages of
cognitive
development
in
Piaget's theory. This stage,
which
follows
the
preoperational stage, occurs
between the ages of 7 and
11years[7] and is characterized

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY

Seriationthe ability to sort


objects in an order according to
size,
shape,
or
any
other
characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may
make a color gradient.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Transitivity- Transitivity, which
refers to the ability to recognize
relationships among various things
in a serial order. For example, when
told to put away his books
according to height, the child
recognizes that he starts with
placing the tallest one on one end
of the bookshelf and the shortest

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Classificationthe
ability
to
name and identify sets of objects
according to appearance, size or
other characteristic, including the
idea that one set of objects can
include another.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Decenteringwhere
the
child
takes into account multiple aspects
of a problem to solve it. For
example, the child will no longer
perceive an exceptionally wide but
short cup to contain less than a
normally wide, taller cup.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Conservationunderstanding
that quantity, length or number of
items
is
unrelated
to
the
arrangement or appearance of the
object or items.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Elimination
of
Egocentrismthe
ability to view things from another's
perspective
(even
if
they
think
incorrectly). For instance, show a child a
comic in which Jane puts a doll under a
box, leaves the room, and then Melissa
moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane
comes back. A child in the concrete
operations stage will say that Jane will
still think it's under the box even

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Children in this stage can,
however,
only
solve
problems that apply to
actual (concrete) objects
or
events,
and
not
abstract
concepts
or
hypothetical tasks.

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY

The third stage is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early
adolescence): Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic
manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. The child develops an
ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or
observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to
understand. Logic: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational
stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at
this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general
principle to predict the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: An example of
this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental
categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is
a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw
conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes
to hypothetical situations.[8] The abstract quality of the adolescent's thought at
the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem solving
ability.[8] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are
more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion. [8] Adolescents begin to
think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and
systematically testing solutions.[8] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning,
which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically
deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem. [8]
During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such things as love,
"shades of gray", logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person
begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
Formal operational stage
The final stage is known as Formal operational stage
(adolescence and into adulthood): Intelligence is
demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related
to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable
of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this
time, people develop the ability to think about abstract
concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that deductive logic
becomes important during the formal operational stage.
This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations
and is often required in science and mathematics.
Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational
stage. Children tend to think very concretely and
specifically in earlier stages. Children begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of actions.
Problem-Solving is when children use trial-and-error to

PIAGETS COGNITIVE
THEORY
The stages and causation
Piaget sees childrens conception of causation as a march from
"primitive" conceptions of cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous,
and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts are characterized as
magical, with a decidedly nonnatural or nonmechanical tone. Piaget
attributes this to his most basic assumption: that babies are
phenomenists. That is, their knowledge "consists of assimilating things
to schemas" from their own action such that they appear, from the
childs point of view, "to have qualities which in fact stem from the
organism." Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so prevalent
during Piagets first stage of development, are dashed upon
discovering deeper empirical truths. Piaget gives the example of a
child believing the moon and stars follow him on a night walk; upon
learning that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self
from the object, resulting in a theory that the moon is immobile, or
moves independently of other agents. The second stage, from around
three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of
magical, animistic, or nonnatural conceptions of causation and
mechanical or "naturalisitic" causation. This conjunction of natural and
nonnatural causal explanations supposedly stems from experience
itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of
moral development constitute
an
adaptation
of
a
psychological theory originally
conceived of by the Swiss
psychologist
Jean Piaget.
Kohlberg began work on this
topic
while
a
psychology
postgraduate student at the

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the
basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable
developmental stages, each more adequate at
responding to moral dilemmas than its
predecessor.[2]
Kohlberg
followed
the
development of moral judgment far beyond the
ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who also
claimed that logic and morality develop
through constructive stages.[2] Expanding on
Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the
process of moral development was principally
concerned with justice, and that it continued
throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion
that spawned dialogue on the philosophical

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg's six stages can be more
generally grouped into three levels of
two stages each: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional.[7][8]
[9]
Following
Piaget's
constructivist
requirements for a stage model, as
described
in
his
theory of cognitive development, it is
extremely rare to regress in stagesto
lose the use of higher stage abilities.[14]
[15]
Stages cannot be skipped; each
provides
a
new
and
necessary

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment
orientation (How can I avoid
punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it
for me?) (Paying for a benefit)

Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and
conformity (Social norms) (The good
boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)
The understanding gained in each
stage is retained in later stages, but
may be regarded by those in later
stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient
attention to detail.

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Pre-conventional
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning
is especially common in children, although
adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning.
Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an
action by its direct consequences. The preconventional level consists of the first and
second stages of moral development, and is
solely concerned with the self in an egocentric
manner. A child with preconventional morality
has not yet adopted or internalized society's
conventions regarding what is right or wrong,
but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring. [7]

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
In Stage one (obedience and punishment
driven), individuals focus on the direct
consequences of their actions on themselves.
For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished.
"The last time I did that I got spanked so I will
not do it again." The worse the punishment for
the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived
to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that
even innocent victims are guilty in proportion
to their suffering. It is "egocentric", lacking
recognition that others' points of view are
different
from
one's
own.[17]
There
is
"deference to superior power or prestige". [17]

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the
"what's in it for me" position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever is in the
individual's best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others,
but only to a point where it might further the
individual's own interests. As a result, concern
for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect, but rather a "You scratch my back,
and I'll scratch yours." mentality.[2] The lack of
a societal perspective in the pre-conventional
level is quite different from the social contract
(stage five), as all actions have the purpose of
serving the individual's own needs or interests.

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT

Conventional
The conventional level of moral reasoning is
typical of adolescents and adults. Those who
reason in a conventional way judge the
morality of actions by comparing them to
society's
views
and
expectations.
The
conventional level consists of the third and
fourth
stages
of
moral
development.
Conventional morality is characterized by an
acceptance of society's conventions concerning
right and wrong. At this level an individual
obeys rules and follows society's norms even
when there are no consequences for obedience
or disobedience. Adherence to rules and

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity
driven), the self enters society by filling social roles
. Individuals are receptive to approval or
disapproval from others as it reflects society's
accordance with the perceived role. They try to be
a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these
expectations,[2] having learned that there is
inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning
may judge the morality of an action by evaluating
its
consequences
in
terms
of
a
person's
relationships, which now begin to include things
like respect, gratitude and the "golden rule". "I
want to be liked and thought well of; apparently,
not being naughty makes people like me." Desire to
maintain rules and authority exists only to further

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT

In Stage four (authority and social order obedience


driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums and
social conventions because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in
stage four is thus beyond the need for individual
approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or
ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such
as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone wouldthus there
is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
When someone does violate a law, it is morally
wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this
stage as it separates the bad domains from the good
ones. Most active members of society remain at

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Post-Conventional
The post-conventional level, also known as the
principled level, is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society, and that
the individuals own perspective may take precedence
over societys view; individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional
moralists live by their own ethical principlesprinciples
that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty,
and
justice.
People
who
exhibit
postconventional morality view rules as useful but
changeable mechanismsideally rules can maintain the
general social order and protect human rights. Rules are
not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without
question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate
their own moral evaluation of a situation over social

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract
moral reasoning.[7][8][9]
In Stage five (social contract driven), the world
is viewed as holding different opinions, rights
and values. Such perspectives should be
mutually respected as unique to each person
or
community.
Laws
are
regarded
as
social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare
should be changed when necessary to meet
the greatest good for the greatest number of
people.[8]
This
is
achieved
through
majority decision, and inevitable compromise.

KOHLBERGS STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT
In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral
reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using
universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar
as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to
justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust
laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts
are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are
not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but
rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the
philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an
individual imagining what they would do in anothers
shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines
to be true.[19] The resulting consensus is the action
taken. In this way action is never a means but always an
end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and
not because it is instrumental, expected, legal, or
previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jmuller.wikispaces.com
Wikipedia.org
Calderon, Jose F., Foundations of Education, Manila, Rex
Book Store, Inc. 2003

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MAEd Educational Management
June 28 - 29, 2012

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