Polymer and Composites

POLYMERS AND
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
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Fundamentals of Polymer Technology

Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermosetting Polymers
Elastomers
Composites--Technology and Classification
Composite Materials
Guide to the Processing of Polymers and Composite
Materials
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Polymer
A compound consisting of longchain molecules, each
molecule made up of repeating units connected
together
There may be thousands, even millions of units in a
single polymer molecule
The word polymer is derived from the Greek words
poly, meaning many, and meros (reduced to mer),
meaning part
Most polymers are based on carbon and are
therefore considered organic chemicals
Types of Polymers
Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers

As engineering materials, it is appropriate to divide
them into the following three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers
2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are rubbers
Thermoplastic Polymers Thermoplastics

Solid materials at room temperature but viscous liquids
when heated to temperatures of only a few hundred
degrees
This characteristic allows them to be easily and
economically shaped into products
They can be subjected to heating and cooling cycles
repeatedly without significant degradation
Symbolized by TP
Thermosetting Polymers Thermosets

Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles as
thermoplastics can
When initially heated, they soften and flow for
molding
Elevated temperatures also produce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an
infusible solid
If reheated, thermosets degrade and char rather
than soften
Symbolized by TS
Elastomers (Rubbers)
Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility when
subjected to relatively low mechanical stress
Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor of 10
and yet completely recover to their original shape
Although their properties are quite different from
thermosets, they share a similar molecular structure
that is different from the thermoplastics
Market Shares
Thermoplastics are commercially the most important
of the three types
About 70% of the tonnage of all synthetic
polymers produced
Thermosets and elastomers share the remaining
30% about evenly, with a slight edge for the
former
On a volumetric basis, current annual usage of
polymers exceeds that of metals
Examples of Polymers
Thermoplastics:
Polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, polypropylene,
polystyrene, and nylon
Thermosets:
Phenolics, epoxies, and certain polyesters
Elastomers:
Natural rubber (vulcanized)
Synthetic rubbers, which exceed the tonnage of
natural rubber
Reasons Why Polymers are

Important
Plastics can be molded into intricate part shapes,
usually with no further processing
Very compatible with net shape processing
On a volumetric basis, polymers:
Are cost competitive with metals
Generally require less energy to produce than
metals
Certain plastics are transparent, which makes them
competitive with glass in some applications
General Properties of Polymers

Low density relative to metals and ceramics
Good strengthtoweight ratios for certain (but not all)
polymers
High corrosion resistance
Low electrical and thermal conductivity
Limitations of Polymers
Low strength relative to metals and ceramics
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
Service temperatures are limited to only a few
hundred degrees
Viscoelastic properties, which can be a distinct
limitation in load bearing applications
Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight
and other forms of radiation
Synthesis of Polymers
Nearly all polymers used in engineering are synthetic
They are made by chemical processing
Polymers are synthesized by joining many small
molecules together into very large molecules, called
macromolecules, that possess a chainlike structure
The small units, called monomers, are generally
simple unsaturated organic molecules such as
ethylene C2H4
Polyethylene
Synthesis of polyethylene from ethylene monomers:
(1) n ethylene monomers, (2a) polyethylene of chain
length n; (2b) concise notation for depicting polymer
structure of chain length n
Polymerization
As a chemical process, the synthesis of polymers

can occur by either of two methods:
1. Addition polymerization
2. Step polymerization
Production of a given polymer is generally
associated with one method or the other
Addition Polymerization
In this process, the double bonds between carbon
atoms in the ethylene monomers are induced to open
up so they can join with other monomer molecules
The connections occur on both ends of the
expanding macromolecule, developing long chains of
repeating mers
It is initiated using a chemical catalyst to open the
carbon double bond in some of the monomers
Addition Polymerization
Model of addition (chain) polymerization: (1) initiation,
(2) rapid addition of monomers, and (3) resulting long
chain polymer molecule with n mers at termination of
reaction
Step Polymerization
In this form of polymerization, two reacting
monomers are brought together to form a new
molecule of the desired compound
As reaction continues, more reactant molecules
combine with the molecules first synthesized to form
polymers of length n = 2, then length n = 3, and so on
In addition, polymers of length n1 and n2 also
combine to form molecules of length n = n1 + n2, so
that two types of reactions are proceeding
simultaneously
Step Polymerization
Model of step polymerization showing the two types
of reactions occurring: (left) nmer attaching a single
monomer to form a (n+1)mer; and (right) n1mer
combining with n2mer to form a (n1+n2)mer.
Some Examples
Polymers produced by addition polymerization:
Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride,
polyisoprene
Polymers produced by step polymerization:
Nylon, polycarbonate, phenol formaldehyde
Degree of Polymerization
Since molecules in a given batch of polymerized
material vary in length, n for the batch is an average
Its statistical distribution is normal
The mean value of n is called the degree of
polymerization (DP) for the batch
DP affects properties of the polymer
Higher DP increases mechanical strength but also
increases viscosity in the fluid state, which makes
processing more difficult
Molecular Weight
The sum of the molecular weights of the mers in the
molecule
MW = n times the molecular weight of each
repeating unit
Since n varies for different molecules in a batch,
the molecular weight must be interpreted as an
average
Typical Values of DP and MW

Polymer
Polyethylene
Polyvinylchloride
Nylon
Polycarbonate
DP(n)
10,000
1,500
120
200
MW
300,000
100,000
15,000
40,000
Polymer Molecular Structures

Linear structure chain-like structure
Characteristic of thermoplastic polymers
Branched structure chain-like but with side
branches
Also found in thermoplastic polymers
Cross-linked structure
Loosely cross-linked, characteristic of
elastomers
Tightly cross-linked, characteristic of thermosets
Polymer Molecular Structures
Linear
Branched
Loosely cross-linked
Tightly cross-linked
Effect of Branching on Properties

Thermoplastic polymers always possess linear or
branched structures, or a mixture of the two
Branches increase entanglement among the
molecules, which makes the polymer
Stronger in the solid state
More viscous at a given temperature in the
plastic or liquid state
Effect of Cross-Linking on
Properties
Thermosets possess a high degree of crosslinking;
elastomers possess a low degree of crosslinking
Thermosets are hard and brittle, while elastomers are
elastic and resilient
Crosslinking causes the polymer to become
chemically set
The reaction cannot be reversed
The polymer structure is permanently changed;
if heated, it degrades or burns rather than melt
Crystallinity in Polymers
Both amorphous and crystalline structures are
possible, although the tendency to crystallize is much
less than for metals or nonglass ceramics
Not all polymers can form crystals
For those that can, the degree of crystallinity (the
proportion of crystallized material in the mass) is
always less than 100%
Crystalline Polymer Structure

Crystallized regions in a polymer: (a) long molecules
forming crystals randomly mixed in with the
amorphous material; and (b) folded chain lamella, the
typical form of a crystallized region
Crystallinity and Properties

As crystallinity is increased in a polymer
Density increases
Stiffness, strength, and toughness increases
Heat resistance increases
If the polymer is transparent in the amorphous
state, it becomes opaque when partially
crystallized
Low Density & High Density

Polyethylene
Polyethylene type
Low density
High density
Degree of crystallinity
55%
92%
Specific gravity
0.92
0.96
Modulus of elasticity
140 MPa
(20,000 lb/in2)
700 MPa
(100,000 lb/in2)
Melting temperature
115C
135C
(239F)
(275F)
Some Observations About

Crystallization
Linear polymers consist of long molecules with
thousands of repeated mers
Crystallization involves folding back and forth of the
long chains upon themselves
The crystallized regions are called crystallites
Crystallites take the form of lamellae randomly mixed in
with amorphous material
A crystallized polymer is a twophase system
Crystallites interspersed in an amorphous matrix
Factors for Crystallization

Slower cooling promotes crystal formation and
growth
Mechanical deformation, as in the stretching of a
heated thermoplastic, tends to align the structure and
increase crystallization
Plasticizers (chemicals added to a polymer to soften
it) reduce crystallinity
Thermal Behavior of Polymers

Specific volume
(density)-1 as a
function of
temperature
Additives
Properties of a polymer can often be beneficially
changed by combining it with additives
Additives either alter the molecular structure or
Add a second phase, in effect transforming the
polymer into a composite material
Types of Additives by Function

Fillers strengthen polymer or reduce cost
Plasticizers soften polymer and improve flow
Colorants pigments or dyes
Lubricants reduce friction and improve flow
Flame retardents reduce flammability of polymer
Crosslinking agents for thermosets and elastomers
Ultraviolet light absorbers reduce degradation from
sunlight
Antioxidants reduce oxidation damage
Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)

Thermoplastic polymers can be heated from solid state
to viscous liquid and then cooled back down to solid
Heating and cooling can be repeated many times
without degrading the polymer
Reason: TP polymers consist of linear and/or
branched macromolecules that do not crosslink
upon heating
Thermosets and elastomers change chemically when
heated, which crosslinks their molecules and
permanently sets these polymers
Mechanical Properties of
Thermoplastics
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
E is much lower than metals and ceramics
Low tensile strength
TS is about 10% of metal
Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics
Greater ductility on average
Tremendous range of values, from 1% elongation
for polystyrene to 500% or more for polypropylene
Strength vs. Temperature

Deformation
resistance
(strength) of
polymers as a
function of
temperature
Physical Properties of
Thermoplastics
Lower densities than metals or ceramics
Typical specific gravity for polymers are 1.2
(compared to ceramics (~ 2.5) and metals (~ 7)
Much higher coefficient of thermal expansion
Roughly five times the value for metals and 10
times the value for ceramics
Much lower melting temperatures
Insulating electrical properties
Higher specific heats than metals and ceramics
Commercial Thermoplastic
Products and Raw Materials
Thermoplastic products include
Molded and extruded items
Fibers and filaments
Films and sheets
Packaging materials
Paints and varnishes
Starting plastic materials are normally supplied to the
fabricator in the form of powders or pellets in bags,
drums, or larger loads by truck or rail car
Thermosetting Polymers (TS)

TS polymers are distinguished by their highly
crosslinked threedimensional, covalentlybonded
structure
Chemical reactions associated with crosslinking are
called curing or setting
In effect, formed part (e.g., pot handle, electrical
switch cover, etc.) becomes a large macromolecule
Always amorphous and exhibits no glass transition
temperature
General Properties of
Thermosets
Rigid - modulus of elasticity is two to three times
greater than thermoplastics
Brittle, virtually no ductility
Less soluble in common solvents than thermoplastics
Capable of higher service temperatures than
thermoplastics
Cannot be remelted instead they degrade or burn
Cross-Linking in TS Polymers
Three categories:
1. Temperatureactivated systems
2. Catalystactivated systems
3. Mixingactivated systems
Curing is accomplished at the fabrication plants that
make the parts rather than the chemical plants that
supply the starting materials to the fabricator
TemperatureActivated Systems
Curing caused by heat supplied during part shaping
operation (e.g., molding)
Starting material is a linear polymer in granular form
supplied by the chemical plant
As heat is added, material softens for molding,
but continued heating causes crosslinking
Most common TS systems
The term thermoset" applies best to these
polymers
CatalystActivated Systems
Crosslinking occurs when small amounts of a catalyst
are added to the polymer, which is in liquid form
Without the catalyst, the polymer remains stable and
liquid
Once combined with the catalyst it cures and
changes into solid form
MixingActivated Systems
Mixing of two chemicals results in a reaction that forms
a crosslinked solid polymer
Elevated temperatures are sometimes used to
accelerate the reactions
Most epoxies are examples of these systems
TS vs. TP Polymers
TS plastics are not as widely used as the TP
One reason is the added processing costs and
complications involved in curing
Largest market share of TS = phenolic resins with
6% of the total plastics market
Compare polyethylene with 35% market share
TS Products: countertops, plywood adhesives,
paints, molded parts, printed circuit boards and other
fiber reinforced plastics
Elastomers
Polymers capable of large elastic deformation when
subjected to relatively low stresses
Some can be extended 500% or more and still
return to their original shape
Two categories:
1. Natural rubber - derived from biological plants
2. Synthetic polymers - produced by
polymerization processes like those used for
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
Characteristics of Elastomers
Elastomers consist of longchain molecules that are

crosslinked (like thermosetting polymers)
They owe their impressive elastic properties to two
features:
1. Molecules are tightly kinked when unstretched
2. Degree of crosslinking is substantially less
than thermosets
Elastomer Molecules
Model of long elastomer molecules, with low degree
of crosslinking: (left) unstretched, and (right) under
tensile stress
Elastic Behavior of Elastomer

Molecule
When stretched, the molecules are forced to uncoil
and straighten
Natural resistance to uncoiling provides the initial
elastic modulus of the aggregate material
Under further strain, the covalent bonds of the
crosslinked molecules begin to play an increasing
role in the modulus, and stiffness increases
With greater crosslinking, the elastomer becomes
stiffer and its modulus of elasticity is more linear
Stiffness of Rubber
Increase in stiffness as a function of strain for three
grades of rubber: natural rubber, vulcanized rubber,
and hard rubber
Vulcanization
Curing to crosslink most elastomers
Vulcanization = the term for curing in the context of
natural rubber (and certain synthetic rubbers)
Typical crosslinking in rubber is one to ten links per
hundred carbon atoms in the linear polymer chain,
depending on degree of stiffness desired
Considerable less than crosslinking in
thermosets
Natural Rubber (NR)

NR = polyisoprene, a high molecularweight polymer
of isoprene (C5H8)
It is derived from latex, a milky substance produced
by various plants, most important of which is the
rubber tree that grows in tropical climates
Latex is a water emulsion of polyisoprene (about 1/3
by weight), plus various other ingredients
Rubber is extracted from latex by various methods
that remove the water
Vulcanized Natural Rubber

Properties: noted among elastomers for high tensile
strength, tear strength, resilience (capacity to recover
shape), and resistance to wear and fatigue
Weaknesses: degrades when subjected to heat,
sunlight, oxygen, ozone, and oil
Some of these limitations can be reduced by
additives
Market share of NR 22% of total rubber volume
(natural plus synthetic)
Natural Rubber Products

Largest single market for NR is automotive tires
Other products: shoe soles, bushings, seals, and
shock absorbing components
In tires, carbon black is an important additive
It reinforces the rubber, serving to increase tensile
strength and resistance to tear and abrasion
Other additives: clay, kaolin, silica, talc, and calcium
carbonate, as well as chemicals that accelerate and
promote vulcanization
Synthetic Rubbers
Development of synthetic rubbers was motivated
largely by world wars when NR was difficult to obtain
Tonnage of synthetic rubbers is now more than three
times that of NR
The most important synthetic rubber is
styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR), a copolymer of
butadiene (C4H6) and styrene (C8H8)
As with most other polymers, the main raw material
for synthetic rubbers is petroleum
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)

A thermoplastic that behaves like an elastomer
Elastomeric properties not from chemical crosslinks,
but from physical connections between soft and hard
phases in the material
Cannot match conventional elastomers in elevated
temperature strength and creep resistance
Products: footwear; rubber bands; extruded tubing,
wire coating; molded automotive parts, but no tires
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. Technology and Classification of Composite
Materials
2. Metal Matrix Composites
3. Ceramic Matrix Composites
4. Polymer Matrix Composites
5. Guide to Processing Composite Materials
Composite Material Defined

A materials system composed of two or more distinct
phases whose combination produces aggregate
properties different from those of its constituents
Examples:
Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
Plastic molding compounds with fillers
Rubber mixed with carbon black
Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from
a synthesized composite)
Why Composites are Important

Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in
weight
Strengthtoweight and stiffnesstoweight ratios
are several times greater than steel or aluminum
Fatigue properties are generally better than for common
engineering metals
Toughness is often greater
Possible to achieve combinations of properties not
attainable with metals, ceramics, or polymers alone
Disadvantages and Limitations

Properties of many important composites are
anisotropic
May be an advantage or a disadvantage
Many polymerbased composites are subject to attack
by chemicals or solvents
Just as the polymers themselves are susceptible
Composite materials are generally expensive
Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials
are often slow and costly
Possible Classification of
Composites
1. Traditional composites composite materials that
occur in nature or have been produced by
civilizations for many years
Examples: wood, concrete, asphalt
2. Synthetic composites - modern material systems
normally associated with the manufacturing
industries
Components are first produced separately and
then combined to achieve the desired
structure, properties, and part geometry
Components in a Composite
Material
Most composite materials consist of two phases:
1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which the
secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase sometimes
referred to as a reinforcing agent, because it usually
strengthens the composite material
The reinforcing phase may be in the form of
fibers, particles, or various other geometries
Our Classification of
Composite Materials
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) mixtures of
ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides
and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) Al2O3 and SiC
imbedded with fibers to improve properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) polymer resins
imbedded with filler or reinforcing agent
Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders
Functions of the Matrix Material

Primary phase provides the bulk form of the part or
product made of the composite material
Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually
enclosing and often concealing it
When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load
with the secondary phase, in some cases deforming
so that the stress is essentially born by the
reinforcing agent
Reinforcing Phase
Function is to reinforce the primary phase
Reinforcing phase (imbedded in the matrix) is most
commonly one of the following shapes: fibers,
particles, or flakes
Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
Example: a powder metallurgy part infiltrated with
polymer
Physical Shapes of Imbedded

Phase
Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in
composite materials: (a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c)
flake
Fibers
Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular in
cross section
Diameters from ~ 0.0025 mm to about 0.13 mm
Filaments provide greatest opportunity for strength
enhancement of composites
Filament form of most materials is significantly
stronger than the bulk form
As diameter is reduced, the material becomes
oriented in the fiber axis direction and probability
of defects in the structure decreases significantly
Continuous Fibers vs.

Discontinuous Fibers
Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they offer a
continuous path by which a load can be carried by
the composite part
Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of continuous
fibers) - short lengths (L/D = roughly 100)
Whiskers = discontinuous fibers of hair-like
single crystals with diameters down to about
0.001 mm (0.00004 in) and very high strength
Fiber Orientation Three Cases

Onedimensional reinforcement, in which maximum
strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of
the fiber
Planar reinforcement, in some cases in the form of a
twodimensional woven fabric
Random or threedimensional in which the composite
material tends to possess isotropic properties
Fiber Orientation
Fiber orientation in composite materials: (a)
onedimensional, continuous fibers; (b) planar,
continuous fibers in the form of a woven fabric; and (c)
random, discontinuous fibers
Materials for Fibers

Fiber materials in fiberreinforced composites
Glass most widely used filament
Carbon high elastic modulus
Boron very high elastic modulus
Polymers - Kevlar
Ceramics SiC and Al2O3
Metals - steel
Most important commercial use of fibers is in polymer
composites
Particles and Flakes

A second common shape of imbedded phase is
particulate, ranging in size from microscopic to
macroscopic
Flakes are basically twodimensional particles
small flat platelets
Distribution of particles in the matrix is random
Strength and other properties of the composite
material are usually isotropic
Interface between Constituent

Phases in Composite Material
For the composite to function, the phases must bond
where they join at the interface
Direct bonding between primary and secondary phases
Interphase
In some cases, a third ingredient must be added to
bond primary and secondary phases
Called an interphase, it is like an adhesive
Alternative Interphase Form

Formation of an interphase consisting of a solution of
primary and secondary phases at their boundary
Properties of
Composite Materials
In selecting a composite material, an optimum
combination of properties is often sought, rather than
one particular property
Example: fuselage and wings of an aircraft must
be lightweight, strong, stiff, and tough
Several fiberreinforced polymers possess
these properties
Example: natural rubber alone is relatively weak
Adding carbon black increases its strength
Three Factors that Determine

Properties
1. Materials used as component phases in the
composite
2. Geometric shapes of the constituents and resulting
structure of the composite system
3. How the phases interact with one another
Example: Fiber Reinforced

Polymer
Model of fiberreinforced
composite material
showing direction in
which elastic modulus is
being estimated by the
rule of mixtures
Example: Fiber Reinforced

Polymer (continued)
Stressstrain relationships
for the composite material
and its constituents
The fiber is stiff but brittle,
while the matrix
(commonly a polymer) is
soft but ductile
Variations in Strength and

Stiffness
Variation in elastic modulus and tensile strength as a
function of direction relative to longitudinal axis of
carbon fiberreinforced epoxy composite
Importance of Geometric Shape:

Fibers
Most materials have tensile strengths several times
greater as fibers than as bulk materials
By imbedding the fibers in a polymer matrix, a
composite material is obtained that avoids the
problems of fibers but utilizes their strengths
Matrix provides the bulk shape to protect the fiber
surfaces and resist buckling
When a load is applied, the lowstrength matrix
deforms and distributes the stress to the
highstrength fibers
Other Composite Structures

Laminar composite structure conventional
Sandwich structure
Honeycomb sandwich structure
Laminar Composite Structure

Conventional laminar
structure - two or more
layers bonded together
in an integral piece
Example: plywood, in
which layers are the
same wood, but grains
oriented differently to
increase overall strength
Sandwich Structure: Foam Core

Relatively thick core of
low density foam
bonded on both faces to
thin sheets of a different
material
Sandwich Structure:
Honeycomb Core
Alternative to foam
core
Foam or
honeycomb achieve
high ratios of
strengthtoweight
and
stiffnesstoweight
Other Laminar Composite

Structures
FRPs - multilayered, fiberreinforced plastic panels for
aircraft, boat hulls, other products
Printed circuit boards - layers of reinforced copper and
plastic for electrical conductivity and insulation,
respectively
Snow skis - layers of metals, particle board, and
phenolic plastic
Windshield glass - two layers of glass on either side of
a sheet of tough plastic
Metal Matrix Composites

(MMCs)
Metal matrix reinforced by a second phase
Reinforcing phases:
1. Particles of ceramic
These MMCs are commonly called cermets
2. Fibers of various materials
Other metals, ceramics, carbon, and boron
Cermets
MMC with ceramic contained in a metallic matrix
The ceramic often dominates the mixture, sometimes
up to 96% by volume
Bonding can be enhanced by slight solubility between
phases at elevated temperatures used in processing
Cermets can be subdivided into
1. Cemented carbides most common
2. Oxidebased cermets less common
Cemented Carbides
One or more carbide compounds bonded in a metallic
matrix
Common cemented carbides are based on tungsten
carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), and chromium
carbide (Cr3C2)
Tantalum carbide (TaC) and others are less

common
Metallic binders: usually cobalt (Co) or nickel (Ni)
Cemented Carbide
Photomicrograph (about 1500X) of cemented carbide
with 85% WC and 15% Co (photo courtesty of
Kennametal Inc.)
Cemented Carbide Properties

Typical plot of
hardness and
transverse
rupture strength
as a function of
cobalt content
Applications of
Cemented Carbides
Tungsten carbide cermets (Co binder)
Cutting tools, wire drawing dies, rock drilling bits,
powder metal dies, indenters for hardness testers
Titanium carbide cermets (Ni binder)
Cutting tools; high temperature applications such as
gasturbine nozzle vanes
Chromium carbide cermets (Ni binder)
Gage blocks, valve liners, spray nozzles
Ceramic Matrix Composites

(CMCs)
Ceramic primary phase imbedded with a secondary
phase, usually consisting of fibers
Attractive properties of ceramics: high stiffness,
hardness, hot hardness, and compressive strength;
and relatively low density
Weaknesses of ceramics: low toughness and bulk
tensile strength, susceptibility to thermal cracking
CMCs represent an attempt to retain the desirable
properties of ceramics while compensating for their
weaknesses
Ceramic Matrix Composite

Photomicrograph (about 3000X) of fracture surface of
SiC whisker reinforced Al2O3 (photo courtesy of
Greenleaf Corp.)
Polymer Matrix Composites

(PMCs)
Polymer primary phase in which a secondary phase is
imbedded as fibers, particles, or flakes
Commercially, PMCs are more important than MMCs
or CMCs
Examples: most plastic molding compounds,
rubber reinforced with carbon black, and
fiberreinforced polymers (FRPs)
FiberReinforced Polymers
(FRPs)
PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with
highstrength fibers
Polymer matrix materials:
Usually a thermosetting plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or epoxy
Can also be thermoplastic, such as nylons
(polyamides), polycarbonate, polystyrene, and
polyvinylchloride
Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as tires and conveyor belts
Fibers in PMCs
Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous,
or woven as a fabric
Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon,
and Kevlar 49
Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and Al2O3,
and steel
Glass (in particular Eglass) is the most common fiber
material in today's FRPs
Its use to reinforce plastics dates from around
1920
Common FRP Structures

Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar structure
Made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber
and polymer until desired thickness is obtained
By varying fiber orientation among layers, a
specified level of anisotropy in properties can be
achieved in the laminate
Applications: boat hulls, aircraft wing and fuselage
sections, automobile and truck body panels
FRP Properties
High strengthtoweight and modulustoweight ratios
A typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as much as
steel
Yet strength and modulus are comparable in fiber
direction
Good fatigue strength
Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are
soluble in various chemicals
Low thermal expansion for many FRPs
FRP Applications
Aerospace much of the structural weight of todays
airplanes and helicopters consist of advanced FRPs
Example: Boeing 787
Automotive some body panels for cars and truck cabs
Low-carbon sheet steel still widely used due to its
low cost and ease of processing
Sports and recreation
FRPs used for boat hulls since 1940s
Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts,
helmets, skis, bows and arrows
Other Polymer Matrix

Composites
Other PMCs contain particles, flakes, and short fibers
Called fillers when used in molding compounds
Two categories:
1. Reinforcing fillers used to strengthen or
otherwise improve mechanical properties
2. Extenders used to increase bulk and reduce
cost per unit weight, with little or no effect on
mechanical properties
Guide to Processing Composite

Materials
The two phases are typically produced separately
before being combined into the composite part
Processing techniques to fabricate MMC and
CMC components are similar to those used for
powdered metals and ceramics
Molding processes are commonly used for
PMCs with particles and chopped fibers
Specialized processes have been developed for
FRPs
Guide to the
Processing of Polymers
Polymers are nearly always shaped in a heated,
highly plastic state
Common operations are extrusion and molding
Molding of thermosets is more complicated because
of crosslinking
Thermoplastics are easier to mold and a greater
variety of molding operations are available
Rubber processing has a longer history than plastics,
and rubber industries are traditionally separated from
plastics industry, even though processing is similar

Polymer and Composites

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Polymer and Composites

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POLYMERS AND

Fundamentals of Polymer Technology

Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers

Thermoplastic Polymers Thermoplastics

Thermosetting Polymers Thermosets

Reasons Why Polymers are

General Properties of Polymers

As a chemical process, the synthesis of polymers

Typical Values of DP and MW

Polymer Molecular Structures

Polymer Molecular Structures

Effect of Branching on Properties

Crystalline Polymer Structure

Crystallinity and Properties

Low Density & High Density

Some Observations About

Factors for Crystallization

Thermal Behavior of Polymers

Types of Additives by Function

Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)

Strength vs. Temperature

Thermosetting Polymers (TS)

Elastomers consist of longchain molecules that are

Elastic Behavior of Elastomer

Natural Rubber (NR)

Vulcanized Natural Rubber

Natural Rubber Products

Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)

Composite Material Defined

Why Composites are Important

Disadvantages and Limitations

Functions of the Matrix Material

Physical Shapes of Imbedded

Continuous Fibers vs.

Fiber Orientation Three Cases

Materials for Fibers

Particles and Flakes

Interface between Constituent

Alternative Interphase Form

Three Factors that Determine

Example: Fiber Reinforced

Example: Fiber Reinforced

Variations in Strength and

Importance of Geometric Shape:

Other Composite Structures

Laminar Composite Structure

Sandwich Structure: Foam Core

Other Laminar Composite

Metal Matrix Composites

Tantalum carbide (TaC) and others are less

Cemented Carbide Properties

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composite

Polymer Matrix Composites

Common FRP Structures

Other Polymer Matrix

Guide to Processing Composite

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