Unit - I

Representation of a Sinusoid
Time Domain (magnitude Vs time) x(t)=Acos(wt+)
Phasor Diagram {x(t) = Re [A ej ejwt]}
(x axis-Re part, y axis Im part, an anticlockwise rotating
phasor of length = Amplitude and initial point (t=0) at an
angle = phase)
Two half length phasors rotating in opposite directions
[Re(Z)=1/2(z+z*)]

Line spectrum (Amp Vs Freq and Phase Vs Freq)

One sides or two sided.

Conventions of a Line Spectrum

X-axis shows cyclic frequency (f) in hertz (not the
radian frequency (w) ).
Phase angles will be measure with respect to cosine
wave.
Amplitude should always be a +ve quantity the -ve
sign (if appeared) should be appropriately
compensated in phase spectrum
Amplitude spectrum is symmetric and the phase
spectrum is anti symmetric.

Draw the line spectrum

X(t)= 7 10cos(40t - 60) + 4sin(120t)

Fourier Tools
Fourier Series (for power signals)
Fourier Transform (for energy signals)
Short time Fourier Transform
Discrete Fourier Transform/ Fast Fourier
Transform

Why Should we study Fourier

tools?
To find the Bandwidth of a variety of
signals
For distortionless transmission over an
electrical communication system
signal BW< system BW

Fourier Series
s
si
y
al
n
a

T
1
c k s(t) e- j k t dt
T
0

is
s
he
t
n
sy
s(t)

Complex form of FS (Laplace 1782). Harmonics

ck separated by f = 1/T on frequency plot.

ck e j k t

Note:
Note c-k = (ck)*

Source of this and few more slides: Maria Elena Angoletta, AB/BDI DISP
2003, 20 February 2003

FS of a Rectangular pulse train

Sinc = [sin()]/
It is an even function of having its peak (=
amplitude) at =0 and zero crossing at all other
integer values of .
Main lobe contains appx 90% of total area and
peaks of side lobes gradually decreases to zero at
infinity
How many lines exists in any lobe of a given
rectangular pulse train?

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Spectrum of rectangular pulse train

with 0 = 1/4 (a) Amplitude (b) Phase
Figure 2.1-8

FS synthesis

Square wave reconstruction

from spectral terms

1.5

13
7
5
911
sw11
(t)
(t)
sin(kt)
sin(kt)

sin(kt)
--b-bkbkksin(kt)
7
5
13
9(t)
kkk111

square signal, sw(t)

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0

Convergence may be slow (~1/k) - ideally need infinite terms.

Practically, series truncated when remainder below computer tolerance
( error).
error BUT Gibbs Phenomenon.

10

Gibbs phenomenon
1.5

Overshoot exist @
each discontinuity

square signal, sw(t)

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0

First observed by Michelson, 1898. Explained by Gibbs.

Max overshoot pk-to-pk = 8.95% of discontinuity magnitude.
Just a minor annoyance.
FS converges to (-1+1)/2 = 0 @ discontinuities, in this case.
case

10

FS - oddities
Orthonormal base
Fourier components {uk} form orthonormal base of signal space:
T

*
uk = (1/T) exp(jkt) (|k| = 0,1 2, +) Def.: Internal product : uk um uk um
dt

uk um = k,m (1 if k = m, 0 otherwise).

(Remember (e )* = e )
jt

-jt

Then ck = (1/T) s(t) uk i.e. (1/T) times projection of signal s(t) on component uk

Negative frequencies & time reversal

k = - , -2,-1,0,1,2, + ,

k = k, k = kt, phasor turns anti-clockwise.

Negative k phasor turns clockwise (negative phase k ), equivalent to negative time t,

time reversal.
Careful:
Careful phases important when combining several signals!

Parsevals Power theorem

Total avg power of v(t) is the sum of the
avg power of its phasor components.
2
1
2
P | v(t ) | dt | C n |
TT
n

It can be proved using Fourier series

analysis and synthesis formulae.

From FS to FT
FS moves to FT as period T
increases:
continuous spectrum
s(t)

|ak|

T = 0.05

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

kf

0
0

50

|ak|

0.5

150

200

T = 0.1

0.4

100

0.3

Pulse train, width 2 = 0.025

0.2
0.1

kf

Frequency spacing 0 !

|S(f)|

50

100

150

200

|ak|

0.25
0.2

FT
f
0

50

100

T = 0.2

0.15

150

200

0.1
0.05

kf

0
0

50

100

150

200

Note: |ak|2 a0 as k0 2 a0 is plotted at k=0

Fourier Transform
Non periodic signals can be assumed to be
periodic with a period (T) = infinity.
Under this assumption its avg power will be zero
(due to 1/T term) but it will have finite energy if
v(t) tends to zero as t tends to infinity.
Within above assumptions the discrete line
spectrum becomes continuous (1/T=0) and
Fourier series formula gets modified to Fourier
transform.

V ( f ) F [v(t )] v(t )e

j 2ft

v(t ) F [V ( f )] V ( f )e
1

j 2ft

dt

df

Spectrum of rectangular pulse and reciprocal

spreading.
Even and odd parts of V(f).
Theorems: Rayleighs, Duality, Time-frequency
relations, frequency translation, Differentiation,
Integration, Convolution etc

Convolution
v(t ) * w(t ) v( ).w(t )d
It is an important operation in
many subjects like comm engg,
control systems etc.
It satisfy commutative,
associative and distributive
properties.
Convolution theorem:
Convolution in time domain is
equivalent to multiplication in
frequency domain and vice
versa.

 Find convolution of two rectangular pulses

with amplitudes A1, A2 and pulse width
T1, T2 respectively. Assume that both
pulses are centered at t=0, A1>A2 and
T1<T2.

Impulse Function
(t) represents a unit area concentrated at a point
t=0.
A.(t-td) represents an area = A, concentrated at a
point t-td=0 i.e. t=td.
Integration operation has been implicitly considered
in defining (t). In other words, there is no physical
or mathematical significance of (t) if treated as
ordinary function.

 (at)= (1/|a|) (t)

(t-td).v(t)= (t-td).v(td)
(t)*v(t) = v(t)
Fourier transform of nonfinite energy signals e.g. v(t) = A
Fourier transform of periodic signals.
Fourier transform of unit step and signum function.
Validation of formula for inverse Fourier transform.
High frequency spectral rolloff

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

nth order rolloff of a pulse

(t-td)

= d/dt [u(t-td)] (proof??)

Recall that, the differentiation operation

enhances high frequency components of a
signal.
If nth derivative of a signal produces one
or more impulse then the signal is said to
have an nth order roll off.
High value of n is desired as it indicates
very low amount of high frequency
components in signal thus will require low
channel bandwidth.
Rectangular pulses have 1st order but
raised cosine pulses have 3rd order roll off.