Changes in

State and
Energy
Chapter 2 Section 2

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the
thermodynamic state
function of a substance.
In other words enthalpy is
how much thermal energy a

Energy
How does the ice go from being a
solid back to being a liquid?
Energy is the ability to do work
Energy of motion is called kinetic
energy

Energy
The molecules and
particles in matter are
in constant motion
Particles with more
kinetic energy move
faster and further
apart.

Brownian Motion
The movement of molecules in a
substance is known as Brownian
motion.
This is the randommotionof
particles suspended in a fluid (a
liquid or a gas).
It results from the collisions
between molecules in the fluid.

Potential Energy
Particles also
have potential
energy.
The higher up a
molecule or atom
is the more

Potential Energy

An object can
have potential
energy
depending on its
position.

Where does the

pendulum have
the most
kinetic energy?
Where dies it
have the least?

Potential Energy
A rock at the top of a
cliff has potential
energy
As it falls its kinetic
energy rises and its
potential energy

Law of Conservation of
Energy

Energy cannot be created or

destroyed.
It can change from one form into
another.

Thermodynamics and Conservation

of Energy
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics
that describes temperatures and their
relation to energy.
It also teaches us about macroscopic
variables such as pressure internal
energy and entropy.

The Law of Conservation

of Energy
There is an increasing amount of
chaotic energy in the universe, this is
known as entropy.
The law of conservation of energy tells
us that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but it can change from one
form into another.

Thermal Energy
The total kinetic and potential energy of
all the particles in a sample of matter is
called thermal energy.
If the number of particles or the energy
within those particles changes then the
thermal energy of a substance will
change.

Thermal Energy
If I add ice cubes to a beaker of boiling
water does the thermal energy change?
If so, how? Does it increase
or decrease?

Temperature
Not all particles in a substance have
the same
energy
The average energy of all the particles
is the temperature.
Temperature is different to thermal

Measuring Temperature
Thermometers are
used to measure
the average thermal
energy
(temperature) of an
object.

Lord Kelvin (1824 to 1907)

The S.I. unit for
temperature is
actually the Kelvin
but we also
commonly use
degrees Celsius.
Kelvin is used as it

Absolute Zero
At the physically
impossible-to-reach
temperature of zero
kelvin, or minus
273.15 degrees
Celsius, atoms would
stop moving.
As such, nothing can
be colder than

Which has more thermal

energy?

The average kinetic energy of

the particles in the iced tea is
less than the average kinetic
energy of the particles in the

Can you
describe the
molecular
movement
and the
temperature

Heat

Particles in the ice have the lowest

average thermal energy (temperature).
The particles move very little and only
vibrate in place.
The room temperature water has more
thermal energy, the particles move
around more than particles in the ice,
but still fairly slowly.
The boiling water has the most thermal
energy. The particles move round very

Movement of Heat
We often confuse heat and
temperature.
Heat is a type of energy transfer
and temperature is a
measurement of average energy.

Heat Energy Transfer

When a warm object is brought
near a cooler object, thermal
energy will be transferred from
the warmer object to the cooler
one.

Movement of Heat

Thermal energy moves

from a substance with a
higher temperature to one
with a lower temperature.

Cooling the Water or Heating the

Ice?
When ice melts in water
it is actually taking on
the waters thermal
energy. This results in
the water having less
thermal energy and a
lower temperature.

Heat

Inphysics,heatis energy
that is in a process of
transfer between a system
and its surroundings.

Heat moves from high to low until

equilibrium is reached.

Conduction
When two substances are in direct
contact with each other, heat is
transferred via conduction.

Convection
The movement of heat in a fluid or a gas is known
as convection. Warm air or warm water rises by
convection due to its lower density.

Convection Cells on Earth

Radiation
Radiation does not rely on direct contact between
substances. For example infrared radiation in the
vacuum
of space.

Equilibrium
Eventually a substance will come into
balance with its surroundings.
This is known as equilibrium.
Equilibrium is a state of physical
balance.

Conductors/Insulators
If a substance easily allows heat to move
through it, we can say it is a good
conductor of heat. e.g: most metals.
If a substance does not allow heat to pass
through it easily we can say it is an
Insulator. E.g: wood, plastic, glass.

Conduction V Insulation

Emission experiment
Four containers were filled with warm water. Which
container would have the warmest water after ten
minutes?
Dull metal

Shiny metal

Shiny black

Dull black

shiny metal container would be the warmest after ten minutes because its
The __________
shiny surface reflects heat _______
radiation back into the container so less is lost. The
________
dull black container would be the coolest because it is the best at _______
absorbing heat
radiation.

Absorption experiment
Four containers were placed equidistant from a heater. Which
container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?
Dull metal

Shiny metal

Shiny black

Dull black

The __________
dull black container would be the warmest after ten minutes because
shiny
metal
its surface absorbs heat
radiation
_______ the best. The
_________
container would
be the coolest because it is the poorest atabsorbing
__________ heat radiation.

Specific Heat
Water has many unique properties
One of these is the amount of
energy it takes to raise its
temperature compared to most
other substances.

Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance
is the amount of energy it takes
to raise one gram of a substance
o
by 1 C

Specific Heat
Substances with a low
specific heat up and
cool down quickly.
For example metal
and sand have a low
specific heat.

High Specific Heat and

Calories
Substances with a high
specific heat (e.g.
water) heats up and
cools down more
slowly.
A much larger quantity
of energy is required to
cause its temperature
to rise or fall.

Changes Between Solid and Liquid

State
Matter can change from one state to another
when thermal energy is absorbed or released
As ice is heated it absorbs thermal energy
and its temperature rises.
At the melting point (0oC) the ice melts and
changes from a solid state to a liquid state.

Freezing
The process of melting a
crystalline solid can be
reversed if the liquid is
cooled.
This is called freezing.
As liquid cools it loses
thermal energy its
particles slow down and
come close together.

Freezing
Attractive forces trap
particles and a solid
begins to form.
The point where a
substance changes from
a liquid to a solid is

Melting/Freezing
Water freezes and melts at
0oC
At this point the
temperature will plateau and
will not rise until the phase
change is complete.

Amorphous Solids
Amorphous solids such as
rubber and glass dont
melt in the same way as
crystalline solids.
They dont have crystal
structures to get broken
down. Amorphous solids
get softer as they are

Changes Between Liquid and Gas

States
Matter changes between liquid and gas states
through vaporization and condensation.

Vaporization as a water is heated its

temperature rises until it reaches 100oC. During
this temperature rise water changes phase into
water vapor. This is known as vaporization. There
Evaporati
are
two parts;
on
Boiling

Evaporation vs Vaporation

Evaporation and
boiling are NOT
the same thing!

Vaporization: Evaporation
and Boiling

Evaporation occurs when

molecules on the surface of
a liquid change phase and
become a gas.
We can see the resulting
water vapor. This is known
as evaporation.

Vaporization: Evaporation
and Boiling
As this water vapor
pushes the air out
the way the
pressure pushing
down on the liquid
is reduced.

Vaporization: Evaporation
and Boiling
This allows the
bubbles that we
see to form.
These bubbles
contain a lot of
thermal energy.

Vaporization: Evaporation
and Boiling

As the bubbles rise up to the surface thermal

energy is released. This is known as boiling.

Location of Molecules
For evaporation to
occur:
Faster molecules must be
near the surface.
They must be heading in
the right direction.
These must avoid hitting

Location of Molecules
If you are boiling
water what effect
will evaporation
have on the rate
of temperature
increase?

ppens to the temperature of water when evaporation

Condensation
As a gas cools its particles slow down
As particles slow down enough for their
attractions to bring them together,
droplets of liquid form.
This is the opposite of vaporization and is
called condensation.

Condensation
As a gas condenses to a liquid it
releases thermal energy.
The decrease in energy changes the
arrangement of particles. After the
change of state is complete the
temperature continues to drop.

Condensation

Changes Between Solid and Gas

States

Some substances
can change from a
solid directly into a
gas without ever
being a liquid.
Dry ice (solid CO2) is an example of this

This process is known

as sublimation.

Carbon dioxide does not exist as a liquid so

as it absorbs thermal energy from water
vapor in the air it changes directly into a
gas. As the water vapor cools and
condenses into liquid a fog forms.

Deposition
Deposition is
where a gas turns
directly into a
solid.
Very cold outside
temperatures can
do this to water

The law of Conservation

of Matter

The law of conservation of matter states

that matter cannot be created or
destroyed.
It can however change from one form
into another.
This is like the law of conservation of
energy which states that energy cannot

The law of Conservation

of Mass

Knowledge and
Understanding
Recognize that heat is a form of energy and that
temperature change results from adding or taking
away heat from a system.
Explain the effect of heat on particle motion through a
description of what happens to particles during a
change in phase.
Give examples of how heat moves in predictable ways,
moving from warmer objects to cooler objects until
they reach equilibrium.