Mod 03 Microwacve Propagation FINAL

Section 3
Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.
Microwave Propagation
Topics
Introduction
Types of Wave Propagation
Microwave Propagation Mechanisms
Free Space Propagation
Microwave Propagation under the influence of atmosphere
Atmospheric and Terrain Effect on Propagation
Fresnel Zones
Fading
Introduction
The objective of link planning is to accurately predict
the link outage time.
Majority of link outages occur due to atmospheric
effects. Understanding of these effects on microwave
propagation is necessary to:
To accurately predict the outage periods that
a radio link will experience and
Ensure that the planned link meets the required
performance and quality objectives
Types of Radio-Wave Propagations:

RF wave are classified as:
Ground waves, as the name implies, hug the ground.
Sky waves travel to the upper atmosphere where the
ionosphere refracts them back to earth.
Space waves:
Propagate through the atmosphere just above the
ground
Usually travel in straight lines.
Point to point microwave systems rely on Space

Wave propagation.
Radio-Wave Propagation (Contd)

Satellites
Ionosphere
Diffraction not shown
Sky Wave
(HF only)
REFRACTED WAVE
Troposphere
NON-REFRACTED (k=1) WAVE

MULTIPATH RAYS
F
RE
CT
LE
ED
True Earths Curvature

VE
A
W
Ground Wave
(LF/MF only)
Microwave Propagation Mechanisms

To study Microwave Propagation and its effects on
the receives signal levels at the receiver, it is helpful to
categorize the propagation mechanisms as follows:
Microwave Propagation in free space.
Microwave Propagation under the influence of
atmosphere exhibiting characteristics and
properties of light waves.
Microwave Propagation and

signal attenuation in free space
Free Space Propagation

Free space propagation: refers to the propagation
of an electromagnetic wave in a homogenous,
ideal dielectric medium which may be considered
to be infinite in all directions
Free Space region is about 6 km high at the poles
and about 18 km high at the equator ,called the
troposphere.
Free Space Loss Equation

The Free Space Loss is predictable and given by the
formula:
FSL = 92.4 + 20Log D + 20Log F

Where:
FSL
= Free Space Loss (dB)
= Frequency of transmission (GHz)
= Distance between antennas (km).
Class Work:
Free Space Equation shows that the transmission
medium is inherently more lossy at higher
frequencies. Explain Why ?
If we double the frequency, will the signal level
increase or decrease at the receiving antenna
and by how much in dB ?
10
Mathematical Development of Free Space Loss Equation

Class Project: ( Home Work )
Develop the Free space equation for Frequency F in
MHz and Distance D in Km. ( Hint: Use Sphere and
Power radiated by an isotropic antenna on a point on
the sphere)
11
Step 1:
Consider a transmitter with power Pt radiated by an
isotropic antenna) at a distance d from the transmitter,
the radiated power is distributed uniformly over an area
of the sphere as 4pi d2 (i.e. the surface area of a sphere
of radius d), so that the power flux density is:
12
Step 2
The transmission loss then depends on how much
of this power is captured by the receiving
antenna. If the capture area, or effective
aperture of this antenna is Ar, then the power
which can be delivered to the receiver is:
13
Step 3:
For the hypothetical isotropic receiving antenna
area, we have
(3)
14
Final Step
The free space path loss between isotropic
antennas is Pt / Pr. Since we usually are dealing
with frequency rather than wavelength, we can
make the substitution = c/f (where c, of course, is
the speed of light) to get
15
under the influence of
atmosphere
16
Introduction
Radio waves at microwave frequencies behave like
light waves, certain optical principles are useful in
describing radio wave propagation; the most
important are the principles of reflection, diffraction,
and refraction.
Individually, or in combination, these properties can
significantly affect the microwave signal at the
receiver, thus influencing overall per-hop or system
reliability.
17
The Principle of Signal Diffraction

Diffraction of microwave beam occurs when the
beam center line grazes over an obstacle and RF
energy reaching the far antenna is attenuated.
Diffraction creates a small shadow region where some
energy is re directed in a narrow and rapidly
diminishing wedge toward total shadow.
18
Diffraction Shadow Region
19
Diffraction Shadow Region (Contd)
20
Factors influencing Diffraction Losses

The actual amount of diffraction is dependent upon:
The Fresnel Zone Radius of the wave front at the
obstruction point
The Size and Shape of the obstruction and
The Reflectivity of the obstruction
3rd*
2nd*
1st*
* Fresnel Zones
21
Diffraction Loss Models

To compute losses due to diffraction, simplified
models are developed and give useful
approximations of the effect an obstacle may have
on the radio path.
Two models are usually employed: The Smooth Earth
Model) and The Knife edge Model.
Most Link Planning Software Tools use these models to
compute attenuation due to diffraction.
22
The Knife Edge Approximation

Precise calculation of obstruction losses due to
diffraction are very complex.
Because the transmission loss over irregular terrain is
a complicated function of major factors such as:
Frequency,
Path geometry,
Vegetation density
23
The Knife Edge Approximation (Contd)

The figure below illustrates some examples (as rough
estimates) of knife edge diffraction losses as
compared to the penetration of the obstacle into the
first Fresnel zone.
24
Smooth Earth Diffraction Approximation

Compared to Knife Edge path there is another type of path
called Smooth Earth or diffraction over a smooth, spherical
Earth or Smooth Earth Diffraction.
Figure below illustrates some rough estimates of diffraction losses
over a smooth spherical Earth as compared to the penetration
of the bulge of Earth into the first Fresnel zone.
25
Principle of Reflection of Radio Waves

Reflection occurs when radio waves strike:
A smooth surface such as water, sheet of Ice in
winter
A smooth earth or,
The boundary between the adjacent
atmospheric layers of different densities.
26
Law of Reflection
The amount of reflection depends on:
The angle of incidence and
The reflective quality of the reflecting surface.
27
Phase Change due to Reflection

Depending on the length of the reflected path,
the reflected wave may arrive at the receive
antenna either:
In phase,
Out of phase or
Partially out of phase
28
Specular Reflections
Diversity Action during Reflection Fading
Main
Dish
Adding
Signals
Increa
sing
Decrea
sing k
Canceling
Signals
Increasing k
Diversity
Dish
Main
Dish
o
Decreasing k
Site A
H, Ft
Fresnel
Pattern
Diversity
Dish
RSL, dBm
F3
Main
s, ft
Diversity
D, Mi
F3
F3
F5
F4
F4
F2
F2
Non-correlative Fading
Reflect
ion
F7
8
K=
F1
k=4/3rds
K=4/3
RSL, dBm
F1
Main
Diversity
1800
Phase
Shift
Zone
Site B
F6
Correlative
Fade (Outage)
F8
Increasing k
Standing Wave (multipath fading) due to addition of the direct and multipath signals
29
Geometrical Method to Calculate reflection points
30
Formulas to Calculate Reflection Point and Reflection

delay
31
Class Work:
For a link,
h1 = low end antenna height = 1496 feet
H2 = high end antenna = 2787 feet
D = path length = 52 miles
K = 4/3
Calculate the position of reflection point Y with the antenna
heights used for this link. Also, Calculate the multipath delay and
the standing wave generated due to this delay..
Hints: Calculate the reflection point first. Then calculate the
lengths of direct and delayed signal paths. Take the difference
and convert into nanoseconds ( roughly 1foot= 1 nsec)
Answers: y = 6.888 miles and delay is 21.ft or 21 nsec
32
The Principle of Refraction

Microwave Radio Beam is refracted when it encounters
a medium of different density. The resulting speed
change usually causes a change in direction.
33
Elevation
Illustration of Signal Refraction between antennas
Distance
34
Mechanics of Wave Refraction

In normal atmosphere, temperature, humidity and
pressure in the lower atmosphere decrease almost
linearly with increased altitude.
This corresponds to a linear decrease in the refractive
index of the atmosphere and the velocity of
microwaves traveling through the atmosphere
increases as the refractive index decreases
As the wave front passes through a normal
atmosphere, the increased velocities at the top of the
wave front cause microwave to bend slightly
downward in relatively uniform curve.
35
Refractive Index (n)
The Refractive Index (n) is velocity of light traveling in

a vacuum to the velocity of light in the air.
It is the change in the Refractive index that
determines the path of an electromagnetic wave
through the atmosphere, or how much the wave is
bent from a straight line.
36
Radio Refractivity (N)

Radio Refractivity
The Refractive Index is always greater than unity, and
for a radio wave traveling in air it is only a small
fraction greater than unity.
For ease of computation the index of refraction is re
defined as (N)
N = (n-1) x 106
Example:
For example, the average ground refractive Index is
1.000315. The ground Radio Refractivity is:
N = (n-1) x 106
N = (1.000301-1) x 106 = 301 N-units
37
Radio Refractivity (N) contd.

Radio refractivity (N) depends on the pressure (P), the temperature
(T) and the water vapor content (humidity) e of the atmosphere.
Radio refractivity for links below 100 GHz is defined as :
N = 77.6 P/T + 3.732 x 105 x e/T2

Where:
P = atmospheric pressure in mbars
T = absolute temperature in Kelvins
E = partial pressure due to water vapor in mbars
The value of N varies with altitude since pressure,
temperature, and humidity all vary with height.
38
Refractivity Gradient (dN/dh)

The refractivity gradient is the slope of the refractivity
versus elevation curve.
Refractivity Gradient = N/ h
Under well-mixed atmospheric conditions this value is
a constant.
Experimental results show that the median value of
the refractivity gradient for a typical hop length in
the first kilometer above ground in most temperate
region is
-39 N-units/km
39
Example (1): Microwave Signal Propagation under

changing (N)
k
STANDARD REFRACTIVE LAYER

ELEVATED SUPER REFRACTIVE LAYER
SUB REFRACTIVE LAYER
40
Example (2): Microwave Signal Propagation under

changing (N)
RAYS WITH HIGH TAKE-OFF ANGLE MISS THE LAYER
ENTIRELY AND END UP ABOVE THE RECEIVER
RADIO HOLE
RAYS WITH A LOWER TAKE OFF ANGLE ENTER THE LAYER
AND BENT DOWNWARD TO THE EARTH.
41
Modified Refractivity M
For ease of analysis, the modified refractivity M of the
atmosphere is obtained by adding a second term in
equation of Refractivity N = 77.6 P/T + 3.732 x 105 x e/T2
to account for the curvature of the earth. The
Modified
Refractivity M is:
M
M = 77.6 /T{ P+ 4807. e/T} + 0.157h
42
Effective Earth radius and K Factor

The amount and direction of bending undergone by
the microwave beam is defined either by the
refractive index gradient or, more often, by the
effective earths factor , K.
This factor, multiplied by the actual earth radius, gives
the radius of a fictitious earth curve.
K factor represents the effect of the refraction on RF
propagation rather than the amount of refraction.
43
Super Refraction Illustrated

Atmospheric effects may cause the microwave beam
to bent toward the earth or away from the earth as if
we shrank the earth bulge or lowered it from its location.
44
Subrefraction Illustrated
If the beam bent away from the earth, it is as if we
expanded the earth bulge or raised it upward toward
the beam.
45
Microwave propagations at different of K Factors
STANDARD
k = 4/3rds SLIGHT DOWNWARD REFRA
SU
BR
EF
RA
CT
I
VE
k = 2/3rds UPWARD (INVERSE) BENDING, OFTEN WITH COLD FRONT

TERRAI
k = 1 MIGRATION
STRAIGHT OVER
LINE WARM
OVER MOIST
CURVED
EA
SU PE R
R E FR A
CTIVE
k=
PARALLELS EARTHS CURVATURE; H
DUCTING
k = 2 SIGNIFICANT DOWNWARD REFRA
k = -1 DOWNWARD BENDING TO EARTH; SEVERE
TRUE EARTHS CURVATURE

46
K Factor Calculation: Method (1)

Formula for computing K is:
K = 157 / ( 157 + G )
Where, the refractivity Gradient G = dN/dh
Under well-mixed atmospheric conditions G is a
constant and based on data from a hop in
Trappes France the median value comes to 39
N-units/km.
47

The K factor is related to the refractive Index Gradient
dn/dh as shown below: (ITU-R PN. 310-9, Geneva,
1994).
K = 1/ ( 1+ a x dn/dh) (1)
Where, a is the true earth radius. Also for convenience
, use N, the radio refractivity in the above formula as,
N = ( n 1) x 106. (2)
48

N = ( n 1) x 106.. (2)
Re arrange the above equation as
n = N x 10-6 + 1. (3)
And differentiate equation to obtain the refractivity
gradient as:
dn /dh = 10-6 dN/dh ..(4)
Let G = dN/dh, equation (4) becomes:
dn /dh = 10-6 G
49

Substitute this into equation (1):
K = 1/ ( 1+ a x dn/dh)
K = 1/ ( 1 + a x 10-6 G)
K = 1/ ( 1 + ( 6371 x 10-6 x G )
K = 157 / ( 157 + G). (5)
50
Median Value ( 50 %) of K
Based on data collected from a hop in Trappes France,
the median value of refractivity under a well-mixed
atmospheric conditions was averaged as -39 Nunits/km.
Using this value in equation (5) we can compute the
K median as shown below:
K = 157 / ( 157 + G)
K = 157 / ( 157 + ( - 39) = 157 / ( 118)
K = 1.330508 or 4/3
51
Calculation of Median K for Washington DC: Example

From the measured dN/dh = -60 N-units/km), we
calculate the Median K value for Washington DC as:
K = 157 / ( 157 + G)
K = 157 / ( 157 + ( - 60)
K = 1.6
See the next slide for details.
52
PERCENT OF TIME GRADIENT IS NOT EXCEEDED

99.9
99 98 95 90
80 70 60 50 40 30 20
+100
SUBREFRACTION
(EARTHS BULGE, OBSTRUCTION)
10
2 1%
0.1
0.01%
1/2
2/3
-40
1
4/3
2
-100
-157
2
-200
-2
SUPERREFRACTION
(DUCTING)
-300
-1
-0.7
-400
-500
AVERAGE k-FACTOR
99.99
+200
AVERAGE dN/dh GRADIENT, N0units/km
k-Factor Distribution Chart, May Oakland, CA and

Washington, DC
0.01
0.1 0.5 1
0.05 0.2
5 10
20 30 40
60 70 80
50%
90 95
98 99% 99.9
99.8
99.99%
-0.5
PERCENT OF TIME GRADIENT IS EXCEEDED

Ground-based 100m Layer
January (lower humidity)
daytime periods
50% POINT (k=1.6, dN/dh = -60 N-units/km)
P.530-9 dN1 (not exceeded 1% of a year) = -210 N-units/km

53
Illustrating k-Factor
k = -1
Duct Entrapment
Ray day-to-night arrival angle cha
k = 4/3rds Average Refractivity in Temperate Areas
(follows Earths curvature)
k=
Superrefraction - Ducting
k = 1 (Dry, Elevated)
Subrefraction - Earth Bulge
k = 0.5
k = 0.33
Obstruction
Earths Bulge
Obstruction
Sea Level
True Earth Radius (6400 km)
k = Effective Earths Radius

6400 km
54
Illustrating k-Factor (Contd)

e
er
ph
os ate
m
At e R
rd ps
da La
an ty
St nsi
De
Refractivity Terms
N =
N0 =
Ns =
Atmospheric density (refractive index)

N at sea level
N at ground surface level
Top of Layer
)
=2
/3
(k
0 (k =1)
3)
4/
Subrefractive
1-5% of the time
(Wave refracted
upwards)
N-units
(Radio Refractive Index
at Sea Level)
(k
/dh
-5
8
0
-4
dN
un
N7
15
=+
(k
-10
=
0(
1.6
N0 = 301
= -314
-157
(
+7
5
h, km
/km
its
dN/dh
)
1/2
=
k
(
k=
N-uni
k=
ts/km
(k=-1)
3)
370
469
548
Inland
Coastal
Median
Normal Propagation
90-95%
(Wave refracted
downwards)
Super
Refractive
1-5 %
Ducting
(Horizon
extended)
Super
Refractive
Trapping
0-10%
(severe
ducting or
blackout)
Density profiles in Subrefractive, Standard, and Superrefractive Atmospheric Boundary Layers (ABL)
55
Refractivity Relationships
k
= 1/[1 + a (dn/dh x 10-6)] = 1/[ 1 + (dN/dh) /157]

Dry Term
Ns
Wet Term
3.8 x 105 eH
T2
=
=
=
=
Pressure (1013 mb standard)

Temperature (288oK standard)
Saturation vapor pressure (10 mb standard)
Relative humidity (50% standard)
79P
T
=
=
278 + 23 = 301 N-units (standard atmospheric density or refractive index near sea level)
N at ground surface
dN/dh =
N0
=
N
=
P
T
e
H
a = Earths Radius (6400 km)
N-units/km (density gradient) = -7.32 exp (0.00557 N0) = -40 N-units/km (standard atmosphere)
N at sea level = Ns exp (h/7).
(
- 1)10-6
Denver example: h = 1.63 km, Ns = 239, N0 = 301
= 1.000301, N = 301
Conversions
between= k-factors,
earths
radius,
dN/dh
gradients,
surface
Radio wave propagation
c/
(c = velocity
of light,
186,000
mi/sec
or 3x10 5 km/sec)
density, N0, Ns, k-factor, pressure, temperature, humidity, etc. are shown
56
PERCENT OF TIME GRADIENT IS NOT EXCEEDED

99.9
99 98 95 90
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
2 1%
0.1
0.01%
1/2
SUBREFRACTION
(EARTHS BULGE, OBSTRUCTION)
+100
2/3
-40
1
4/3
2
-100
-157
-200
-2
2
-300
-400
-500
-1
SUPERREFRACTION
(DUCTING)
0.01
0.1 0.5 1
0.05 0.2
5 10
20 30 40
60 70 80
50%
90 95
98 99% 99.9
99.8
-0.7
AVERAGE k-FACTOR
99.99
+200
AVERAGE dN/dh GRADIENT, N0units/km
k-Factor Distribution Chart, Feb. Ezeiza Intl Airport,

Argentina
-0.5
99.99%
PERCENT OF TIME GRADIENT IS EXCEEDED
Ground-based 100m Layer

1 50%
August (lower humidity) daytime periods
POINT (k=4/3rds, dN/dh = 40 N-units/km)
2 P.530-9
dN1 (not exceeded 1% of a year) = -300 N-units/km
57
Commonly Used K factors

K
dN/dh N
units/km
5/12
1/2
2/3
1
1.25
4/3
1.6
oo
-1
-0.5
+ 220
+ 157
+ 80
0
-30
- 40
- 58
-157
- 314
- 470
Atmospheric Conditions
Inversion (large positive gradient)

Moderately Sub refractive
Slightly Sub refractive
Homogenous
Dry Atmosphere
Standard Atmosphere
Humid Atmosphere
Moderate Negative Gradient
Steep gradient
Extreme Gradient
Extreme Earths bulge ( diffraction fade)

Moderate earths bulge
Slight earths bulge
No refraction
Standard ( Mountainous)
Standard
Standard coastal
Flat Humidity earth
Possible Blackout
Blackout
58

Another method to calculate K is to use the following
relationship:
K = Effective Earth Radius

True Earth Radius
where,
Ro = True Earth Radius = 6370 km,
R = the effective Earth Radius and is
calculated as
= 6370 { 1-0.04665 e (0.005577Ns)}-1
where, Ns = is the surface refractivity as N-units.
59
K Factor Calculations: Real Cases

For real links if the sea level refractivity is known, the formula in method
(2) can be used to determine the actual K for link planning . h
(AMSL)antenna height.
The refractive gradient dN/dh may be determined from the refractive
index measured at the surface (Ns) through the Relationship:
dN/dh = -7.32e0.005577 Ns
Where,
Ns = No e ( -0.1057 hs)
Use Ns for the required antenna height (hs) to calculate K: as
K= r/ro = 6370 km and r = 6370 { 1-0.04665 e (0.005577Ns)}-1
60
K Factor Calculation: Class Work

The sea level refractivity (No) is about 312 around Boston, Massachusetts area
of USA. A potential site near Boston is 220 m above the sea level( 0.22 km).
Calculate K for link planning:
Solution:
Ns = No e ( -0.1057 hs)
Therefore,
Ns = No e ( -0.1057 x 0.22)
Ns = 304.8
Notes:
NS is the surface refractivity. This is the Refractivity at the altitude of the LOS
microwave site that we selected or the average refractivity of the path.
The value of sea level refractivity ( No) can be obtained for the area from a nearby
weather bureau or from available charts:
61
K Factor Calculations: Class Work (Contd)

To calculate K factor for Boston link, calculate R, the effective
Earth Radius and divide it by the true earth radius to compute
K for the site in Boston:
R = 6370 { 1-0.04665 e (0.005577x304.8)}-1. (1)

K = 6370 { 1-0.04665 e (0.005577x304.8)}-1 / 6370
62
Anomalous Propagation
Tests have shown that refractivity gradients can
change from being positive to steeply negative
numbers.
When the gradient dN/dh > -100 N-units/km the
atmosphere is characterized as Super refractive and
results in multipath fades.
But, when the gradient dN/dh exceeds - 157 Nunits/km ducting , entrapment and Blackout Fades
result.
63
Anomalous Propagation
n
De
This range of K variations have little

influence upon receiving signal level of
a properly engineered microwave
path.
ty
si
e
ps
La
te
Ra
Top of Layer
0 (k =1)
h, km
-157
-100
N0 = 301
(k =
(k =
Region of Anomalous
Propagation
469
548
64
Superstandard Refraction
Superstandard Refraction atmosphere results
from such metrological conditions:
As a rise in temperature with increasing

height (also Temperature inversion) or a .
marked decrease in total moisture content
in the air with increasing height.
Either of the above will cause reduction in the
atmospheric density with height.
K will also rise resulting in flattening of the
effective earths curvature.
65
Substandard and Superstandard Refraction

Substandard
Refraction (k<1)
Wavefront
Ray
90o
Superrefraction (k>3)
k = 1 (True Earths Radius)
66
Substandard and Superstandard Refraction and Dish

alignment
Possible Decoupling, Defocusing, or entrapment
Substandard
Refraction (k<1)
Possible
Obstruction
Superrefraction (k>3)
Dry Valleys
Humid Wetlands
Antennas serve only to provide maximum coupling of the direct ray

energy into the waveguide feeder, to the exclusion of multipath rays.
Thus, dish alignment is very important for minimum fading.
67
Causes of Superstandard Refraction

Passage of cool air over warm body of water. Water evaporation
causes an increase in humidity and cooling of the air near the
surface and results Temperature Inversion.
Abnormal bending of radio beam results. (typically less than 30 m
high), but have a substantial effect on the propagation of radio
waves above 3 GHz.
68
Causes of Substandard Refraction

Superstandard Refraction or less than standard
atmosphere results from such metrological conditions
which cause the atmospheric density to actually rise
with temperature.
A substandard atmospheric condition may occur
through formation of fog created with the passage of
warm air over a cool air or a moist surface. This
causes the atmospheric density to be lower near the
ground than at higher elevations, causing an upward
bending of the beam.
69
Formation of Radio Ducts

Radio ducts occur when a stable atmospheric
condition results in a temperature inversion and a
sufficient amount of water vapor is trapped below
that inversion.
The above condition causes a rapid decrease in the
refractive index with increasing height leading to
waveguide-like trapping.
There are two types of ducts: Surface duct and
elevated duct.
70
Mechanics of Ducts Formation

During daytime the sun heats the ground giving
convection and a well-mixed atmosphere.
Due to the cool of the night ground loses its heat and
the ground surface temperature drops leading to
state of Temperature inversion.
A pocket of cooler, damper air underneath warmer,
drier air where dN/dh is now < 0, resulting in a ground
based duct.
Just after sunrise in the morning, the ground is heated
by the sun again, and the convection starts near the
ground. The ground based duct rises, resulting in an
elevated duct.
71
Types of Surface Ducts

There are three types of surface ducts based on the trapping
layer's relationship to the earth's surface.
Type 1: Surface Duct:

Created from a surface-based trapping layer.
Type 2: Surface Duct

Due to an elevated trapping layer.
Type 3: Surface Duct

Created by a rapid decrease of relative humidity
immediately adjacent to the air-sea interface. The
evaporation duct is of great importance for over-water EM
propagation.
72
Ducts in the Coastal Regions
73
Surface Duct
74
Evaporation Surface Duct
75
Evaporation Duct
76
Elevated Duct
77
Formation of Evaporation Duct

The equation for refractivity, as shown below, a
change in the moisture distribution ( Wet Term)
without an accompanying temperature change can
also lead to a trapping refractivity gradient.
NS
Dry Term
Wet Term
79P
T
3.8 x 105 eH
T2
78
Formation of Evaporation Duct (Contd)

The air in contact with the ocean's surface is saturated with water
vapor.
A few meters above the surface the air is not usually saturated, so
there is a decrease of water vapor pressure from the surface to some
value well above the surface.
The rapid decrease of water vapor initially causes the modified
refractivity, M, to decrease with height, but at greater heights the
water vapor distribution will cause M to reach a minimum and,
thereafter, increase with height.
The height at which M reaches a minimum is called the evaporation
duct height as illustrated previously.
79
K Factor and Ducting probability

Figure shows the percentage of time when dN /dh is
less than -100 N units/km in May.
This figure gives a good indication where it is most
likely to experience ducting.
One can read from the figure that the equatorial
regions are most vulnerable to ducts.
In temperate climate the probability of formation of
ducts is less.
This difference in ducting probability can be explained
by the difference in temperature and most of all by
the difference in humidity.
The ducting probability follows seasonal variations.
80
Ducting probability in May (ITU-R rep. 563-4)
81
Sensing of Radio Refractivity

Some of Sensing Techniques:
Radiosondes
Microwave Refractometers
Radio occultation ( involves monitoring
transmissions from Global Positioning System (GPS)

satellites using receivers on Low Earth Orbiting (LEO)
satellites. )
82
Path Clearance Criteria

HEAVY ROUTE*
About 6 GHz and above in moderate
to heavy fade areas
(c = 2 to 6)
MAIN PATH
(Top Dishes)
DIVERSITY PATH
(Top-To-Bottom Dishes)
0.3 F1 @ k = 2/3rds
and
F1 @ k = 4/3rds
0.6 F1 @ k = 4/3rds
+10ft/3m Close-In
For Tree Growth, etc.
typically 30-40ft/10-12m
below main dish
LIGHT ROUTE
About 2 GHz and below in all areas, and all
paths in good to average fade areas
(c = 0.25 to c = 1)
0.6 F1 @ k = 1
Same As Heavy Route
DUCTING
Main path clearance with
known surface duct
entrapment (paths >20/30
miles/kilometers)
k = 1 Over a 150 ft/50m

Surface Ducting Layer,
or k = 1/2 grazing
No Special Allowance
* Note: If the main path clearance is established by either of these two criteria
(0.3F1@k=2/3rds or ducting), space or other diversity is nearly always required.
83
The Fresnel Effect
The early 19th century French physicist,

Augustin Fresnel discovered diffraction, or
bending causing the intensity of the original
light beam to increase or decrease
depending on how near the object was to
the beam, known as the Fresnel Effect.
84
Fresnel Zones
Fresnel zones are series of concentric circles around
the direct or shortest path between transmitter and
receiver.
Fresnel zones, (unlimited number), are numbered from
the center out.
Each zone number represents an increase of half a
wavelength in path length.
The odd number zones will add to the direct signal
and even number zones will subtract. Surfaces which
reflect even zones should be avoided.
85
Fresnel Zones (Contd)

A Fresnel zone when diffracted can affect the strength
of the received signal, even though the obstacle does
not directly obscure the direct visual path.
The normal figure quoted is for 60% of the first Fresnel
Zone and is the generally accepted portion which
must be kept clear.
If 50% of the quoted Fresnel zone is obscured, a loss of
75% or 6dB power is likely to be encountered.
86
Fresnel Zone Concept

FRESNEL ZONE NUMBERS
GRAZING
0.6F1@k=1 PATH
CLEARANCE OR
INTERFERENCE ZONE
(Reflective path)
2
1
0.6
th
Ear
h
t
oo
Sm
GRAZING PATH
(6-20 dB LOSS)
CROSS-SECTION A-A
A
Ray
54
Average
Terrain
Ed
ge
54
K
ni
fe
OBSTRUCTION ZONE
(Obstructed path)
RSL, dB FROM FREE SPACE

+10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
0.6
1
2
Fresnel Zone Boundaries

0.6
0.6F1 PATH
CLEARANCE
= FREE SPACE
(NO LOSS)
F1 = 180FT/56m DIAMETER
Site A
40mi/64km path, k=1 (on true earths radius profile)
Site B
87
Class Work: % of First FZ Clearance

We have a 10 km LOS path over which we wish to
establish a link in the 7 GHz band.
The path profile indicates that the high point on the
path is 3 km from one end, and the direct path clears it
by about 18 meters.
Assume: d1 = 3 km, d2 = 7 km
What percentage of First Fresnel the high point clears ?
88
Fresnel Zones: Reflection Points

Even Fresnel Zone
For link planning purposes another important use of
Fresnel zone information is to check microwave paths
for possible reflection points.
If the geometry of the path is such that an even
numbered Fresnel zone happens to be tangential to
a good reflecting surface (a lake, a highway, a
smooth desert area, depending on what wavelength
is involved), signal cancellation will occur due to
interference between the direct and indirect
(reflected) signal paths.
89
Determination of Fresnel Zone number at the reflection

point
In the second Fresnel zone, and all even-numbered Fresnel zones,
deflected signals are up to 180 out of phase with the center lobe
signal.
90
Fresnel Zone Calculations

From the following relationship the radius of First Fresnel
Zone can be calculated:
F1 = ( d1 x d2) / ( d1 + d2)
Where F1 is the radius in meters of the first Fresnel zone,
d1, d2 are the distances in Km from both antenna ends.
is the wavelength = 300/fequency in GHz.
From the following relationship the F(n) the nth Fresnel
Zone number(n) can be determine:
F(n) = F1 (n)
91
Class Work:
K1 = 4/3
pa
t
Path
t
c
e
Di r
R
ef
le
ct
ed
ul
ti
Freq: 6 GHz
Height (H)
is 40
meters
D2 = 30 km
D2 = 20 km
For the above path, calculate the Fresnel zone number at the
reflection point and the multipath delay in nanoseconds: Use
Delay = n/2 x (Freq in GHz).
92
Historical Concept of Fade Margin

Compared to the performance of an analogue
radio path is strongly controlled by the fade depth at
the carrier frequency.
For analogue radios when the fade depth at the
carrier frequency exceeds a threshold the fade
margin, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is no longer
acceptable and a radio outage occurs.
The performance of a digital radio is controlled not
only by the SNR but also by the amount of dispersion
in the channel transfer function.
93
Overview Fading Mechanism
Fading and Fading types

Flat Fading
Frequency Selective (Dispersive) Fading
Composite Fading
Calculation of Dispersive Fade Margin
Radio Signature Curves
94
Fading Types
Fading occurs in two different ways:
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading.
95
Flat Fading
Flat fading occurs when the received signal
spectrum remains a close replica of the transmitted
signal spectrum except for a change in amplitude.
This amplitude change of the signal spectrum varies
over space because of the interference of the
combined electromagnetic waves.
96
Flat Fading (Contd)

This interference can be constructive or destructive
and as a result the fades (changes in the received
signal magnitude) due to flat fading can be very
significant, 30 dB or more.
The amount of fading varies according to the exact
path characteristics at any point in space and time.
Flat fading occurs when the Root Mean Square
(RMS) delay spread of the channel is much smaller
than the symbol period of the transmitted signal.
97
Frequency Selective (dispersive) Fading

Frequency-selective fading occurs when the
RMS delay spread of the channel is more than
about 10% of the symbol period, thereby
causing the wireless channel to alter the
received signal spectrum.
In the time domain, the received symbols can
no longer be identified individually. They
interfere with each other since they are
dispersed in time and overlap one another. This
is known as Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI).
98
Frequency Selective (dispersive) Fading (Contd)

In the frequency domain, the channel response can
no longer be considered flat, its amplitude has
significant variation and its phase is not linear with
frequency.
If the objects in the medium are not moving, the
standing wave pattern will be static in space. Thus,
for a fixed point in space, the wireless channel will be
time-invariant.
99
Frequency Selective (dispersive) Fading (Contd)

If, however, there is motion in the environment
(although neither the transmitter nor the receiver
may be moving), it alters each standing wave
pattern and consequently the wireless channel is
also time-varying.
100
Illustrating Multi path Selective (dispersive) Fades
101
Selective (dispersive) Fading

DFM is the measure of a digital radio link's robustness
to dispersive (spectrum-distorting) fade activity
caused by a high-level long-delayed multipath
signal.
Bellcore assigns a standard 6.3 nsec (2m or 6 ft)
delayed multipath signal as the standard to which
the DFMs of digital radios marketed in the U.S. are
documented on product data sheets.
102
Spectrum distortion due to Notches
103
Selective (dispersive) Fading

This is the radio's DFM with a 6.3 nsec delayed high
level multipath signal.
The links DFM = radio DFM + antenna
discrimination(s) to the multipath signal.
For no errored seconds or SES outages, the links DFM
must be >50 dB. Antennas should be selected and
precisely aligned to ensure this on all digital radio
links.
104
Path Geometry
A1
A2
High radio and link DFM
Small angle,
low discrimination
Good
Short delay
k=4/3rds
A1
Large angle,
high discrimination
above 6 GHz
Low (poor) radio DFM

High (good) link DFM
A2
Long delay
Good
k=4/3rds
Bad: Long delay geometry with low (<10dB)

antenna discriminations (2 GHz, small dish, etc.)
DFM: Dispersive Fade Margin, the

measure of the robustness of a
digital radio and link to dispersive
(spectrum-distorting) fades
105
Multipath Notches
The 6.3 nsec-delayed specularly reflected multipath
signal is a secondary sine wave signal phase-locked,
therefore voltage-added, to the direct signal to
generate a standing wave with broad (adding) tops
and deep (canceling) notches.
The separation (period) between these deep
notches is 1000/6.3 nsec or 158 MHz. The depth of the
notches is a function of the C/I ratio. If the C/I = 0 dB,
the standing wave is +6, more than -50 dB peak-topeak.
106
Notch Depth, dB
Notches and an over Cleared Path

Increasing Path Clearance (Increasing k-Factor)
Free Space RSL
Notch
Slope
Stress
No
Slope
Stress Stress
Notch
Dispersive (Spectrum-distorting) Fading
107
Standing Waves
+10
+6 dB
Notch Depth, dB
Free Space
-20
Period =
1000/Delay, nsec
-40
1000/5 = 200 MHz
Standing Waves,
resulting fromthe
voltage addition
Plot is for of two correlated
CIR = 0 dB signals, explain
multipath fading
>60 dB
-60
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300 MHz
Short (5nsec/5ft/1.5m) Multipath Delay

+6 dB
+10
Notch Depth, dB
Free Space
-20
-40
Period = 1000/20 nsec = 50 MHz
-60
6000
6100
6200
6300
PERIOD, MHz:
1000/Multipath
Delay, nsec
= ~1000/Delay, ft
= ~300/Delay, m
6400 MHz
Long (20nsec/20ft/6m) Multipath Delay

108
Signature (W) Curve

For the construction of the "W" curve, this multipathgenerated notch is moved in frequency across the
receiver's IF (usually) or RF passband in perhaps 2 MHz
steps and the notch depth increased at each
frequency until the BER exceeds 10-3 (outage).
The "W" curve is the locus of these notch depths vs.
frequency-offset points. Since only the 70 MHz
modems robustness, primarily established by the
characteristics of its frequency and time domain
equalization, error correction, etc., is relevant the
radios DFM is usually measured at 70 MHz - modulator
in to demodulator out - bypassing the radios RF
modules.
109
Signature (W) Curve (Contd)

Critical Notch Depth for 10-3 BER, dB
Radio Dispersive Fade Margin Calculations at 10-3 BER

45
Signature (W) Curve
= 6.3 nsec (DFM = 61 dB)
40
35
Average Notch Depth

B = 31 dB)
(Purple area above line
= area below line)
30
25
20
15
Signature (W) Curve
= 25 nsec (DFM = 39 dB)
10
-12
-8
-4
0
+4
Signature Width
f = 13 MHz
+8
+12
Fade Notch Offset Frequency, MHz
DFM Calculations for = 6.3 nsec

f, Signature Width = 13 MHz
B, Average Notch Depth = 31 dB
SW = 2 f e-B/3.8 = 0.00745
DFM = 17.6 10 log SW / 158.4 = 61 dB
110
Signature (W) Curve
111
50 dB = Minimum link DFM for no ES

degradation due to dispersion
72 dB
6.3nsec
(Rummlers
Model)
50
55 dB
30
30 dB
Radio-only DFM
10
0
6(2)
Required antenna
discrimination
(A1+A2)
25nsec
70
2nsec
Dispersive Fade Margin @10-3 BER, dB
Signature (W) Curve
12(4)
18(6)
24(8)
30(10)
= Multipath Delay, nsec/feet (m)
36(12)
Link DFM = Radio DFM + Antenna Discriminations to the Multipath Ray

= 50 dB min. for Good Error Performance
112
Radio DFM Calculations (Contd)

The DFM for the digital radio example in the last slide
sketch for 10-3 BER for a high-level multipath signal
delayed 6.3 nsec (6 ft or 2m) is computed as 61 dB.
The DFMs for other multipath delays are also
measured for most radios, such as 2 nsec and 25
nsec.
HP and Tekelec DFM test sets measure "W" curves (or
M curves, inverted) and automatically compute
the digital radios DFM over a wide range of
multipath delay times.
113
Radio DFM Calculations (Contd)

According to ITU-R and North American standards,
DFM is computed from signature curves plotted only
from 10-3 BER outage points.
DFMs and signature curves should never be measured
at 10-6 BER. 10-6 BER measurements are only used for
manual (technician) measurements with attenuators
to verify factory and field radio static performance
(thresholds, overloads, etc.), and interference levels;
never for link performance during dynamic fade
activity.
114
Example of Different Fade Margin Calculations

+30
TRANSMIT POWER (+30 dBm)
+20
POWER SCALE, dBm
+10
SYSTEM
GAIN
(105 dB)
10
NPL - NET PATH LOSS. dB
SYSTEM GAIN. dB
NET PATH
Waveguide In Site A to Waveguide
LOSS Out at Site B. Typically 60 dB
(65 dB) (Excluding Fade)
XMTR Power Out - RCVR

RSL In (for 10-3 BER) at the
Antenna Ports. Typically 100
dB
20
30
40
UNFADED RECEIVE SIGNAL LEVEL

THERMAL
(OR FLAT)
FADE
MARGIN
TFM
42 dB
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
FLAT +
INTERFERENCE
FADE
MARGIN
IFM
41 dB
DISPERSIVE
FADE
MARGIN
DFM
61 dB
10-3 OUTAGE
COMPOSITE
FADE
MARGIN
CFM
40.8 dB
(35 dBm)
THERMAL FADE MARGIN. dB
TFM = System Gain - NPL
(77 dBm)
C/N RATIO 1 dB DEGRADATION DUE

23 dB
TO INTERFERENCE
N
I
THERMAL NOISE = 100 dBm

INTERFERENCE LEVEL = 106 dBm
(CO-CHANNEL)
6 dB (1 dB TOTAL NOISE INCREASE)
N
I
115
Composite fade Margins

The formula for the Composite Fade Margin (CFM), is
shown below:
CFM = CFM = -10 log[ 10 TFM/10 + 10 DFM/10 + 10 IFM/10 ]
Where,
TFM = Thermal fade margin
DFM = Dispersive fade margin
IFM = Interference fade margin
116
Difficult Digital Microwave Paths

Definition: Those paths that support Analog Radio links but
may degrade less robust (older) Digital Radios:
Path is very long (perhaps >50mi/80km) and affected by
elevated atmospheric ducting layers that generate extremely
rapid multipath fade activity. SES outages may occur if the
receiver quadrature recovery (relock) time is >100 msec.
Path is short (perhaps <25mi/40km), but has excessive
clearance over exposed (little path blockage and dish
discrimination to) terrain supporting long-delayed (>10
nsec/10ft/3m) multipath reflections. Burst ES and SES
outages may occur if the link's DFM (radio DFM + antenna
discriminations) is less than about 50 dB. See Slide 145.
117
Geometry - Short, High Path

0.109O Decoupling
Angle
K=
1200
(365m)
K = 4/3
1.25O Discrimination
to the Reflection
750
Elevation AMSL, Ft
1000
1150 ft (351m)
250
ul
tip 25
at n s
h
D
el
ay
500
1.248O
Grazing Angle
0
0
12
16
20
(32 km)
Distance,Mi
Long delay (25 nsec) = poor radio DFM, but high (20+ dB)
antenna discriminations at1.250 = good link DFM (>50 dB)
118
Geometry - Long, High Path

K=
2400
(731m)
0.543 Decoupling
Angle
0.25 Discrimination
to the Reflection
Elevation AMSL, Ft
2000
1000
K = 4/3
500
ul
1150 ft
(350 m)
ti p 5 n
at s
h
D
el
ay
1500
0.249
Grazing Angle
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
(161 km)
Distance,Mi
Short delay (5 nsec) = good (>50 dB) radio DFM, needed since
there is very little antenna discrimination on long paths.
119
Link Budget Calculations

Antenna Gain
Antenna Gain
(dBi)
(dBi)
B
Path Loss (dB)
Field Factor (dB)
Connector
Connector
Losses
(dB)
Cable Losses
Cable Losses
(dB)
(dB)
(dB)
Tx Output (dBm)
Tx Output (dBm)
Received Signal Level
Losses
(dBm) = Tx Output (dBm) - Path
Loss(dB) - Field Factor (dB) + Total Antenna Gains (dB) - Total

Cable Losses (dB) - Total Connector Losses (dB)
120

Mod 03 Microwacve Propagation FINAL

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Mod 03 Microwacve Propagation FINAL

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Section 3

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Types of Radio-Wave Propagations:

Point to point microwave systems rely on Space

Radio-Wave Propagation (Contd)

NON-REFRACTED (k=1) WAVE

True Earths Curvature

Microwave Propagation Mechanisms

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Microwave Propagation and

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Free Space Propagation

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Free Space Loss Equation

FSL = 92.4 + 20Log D + 20Log F

= Free Space Loss (dB)

= Frequency of transmission (GHz)

= Distance between antennas (km).

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mathematical Development of Free Space Loss Equation

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Principle of Signal Diffraction

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diffraction Shadow Region

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diffraction Shadow Region (Contd)

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Factors influencing Diffraction Losses

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Diffraction Loss Models

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Knife Edge Approximation

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Knife Edge Approximation (Contd)

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Smooth Earth Diffraction Approximation

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Principle of Reflection of Radio Waves

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Phase Change due to Reflection

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Geometrical Method to Calculate reflection points

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Formulas to Calculate Reflection Point and Reflection

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

The Principle of Refraction

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Illustration of Signal Refraction between antennas

Mechanics of Wave Refraction

Refractive Index (n)

The Refractive Index (n) is velocity of light traveling in

Copyright 2005 Telefocal Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.

Radio Refractivity (N)