Recent Topics of Welding Metallurgy Relating To Hot Cracking and Embrittlement in Iron and Nickel-Base Alloys

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Recent Topics of Welding Metallurgy

Relating to Hot Cracking
and Embrittlement in Iron and
Nickel-base Alloys
Kazutoshi Nishimoto
Department of Manufacturing Science
Graduate School of Engineering
Osaka University
Lab.MaterialJoiningProcess
Contents
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1. Background
2. Prediction of Degree of Embrittlement
475 Embrittlement
Sigma Phase Embrittlement
3. Mechanism of Weld Cracking
Solidification Cracking in Laser
Welding
Ductility-dip Cracking
4. Summary
Contents
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1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Nieq %Ni 30%C 0.5%Mn
Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickelbase alloys
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ferrite content
The use of
new alloys or new
welding processes
phase
embrittlement
Hot cracking
Cold cracking
Embrittlement by grain
coarsened
475 embrittlement
Need for researches

to understand their
response to these
problems.
Creq %Cr %Mo 0.5%Si 0.5%Nb

New welding processes such as laser welding may cause changes in a
susceptibility to weld cracking that requires further investigation.
Invar alloy which has recently become widely used in cryogenic plants, is found
sensitive to hot cracking, but its mechanism is not clarified yet.
Nieq %Ni 30%C 0.5%Mn
Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickelbase alloys
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ferrite content
The use of
new alloys or new
welding processes
phase
embrittlement
Hot cracking
Cold cracking
Embrittlement by grain
coarsened
475 embrittlement
Need for researches

to understand their
response to these
problems.
Creq %Cr %Mo 0.5%Si 0.5%Nb

Embrittlement is also a serious problem in weldments of especially ferritic or
duplex stainless steels.

Although many investigations have been conducted into the material behavior
producing embrittlement, rather few of these are useful for predicting the degree of
alloys during welding and/or in post-heat
embrittlement of the
treatment.
Contents
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1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Spinodal Phase Decomposition in Chromium

Containing Iron base Alloys
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2G
2 0
C
(a)
C
C0
C
C
C0
C
(b)
Nucleationandgrowth
Spinodaldecomposition
Initial
Middle
Spinodal
decomposition
C C
(a)Freeenergycurve
(b)PhasediagramandSpinodalcurve
5nm
Final
When ferritic or
duplex stainless steels
containing more than
about 20 % Cr are
exposed to
temperatures of 673823K, they may suffer
from "475
embrittlement", which
somewhat limits the
operating temperatures
of their applications.
Theoretical Analysis of Spinodal Decomposition during

iso-thermal Process
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Cahn-Hilliard's non-linear
diffusion equation
c
D
x
c
=
t
x
Cr
Cr
K c
x
2
x
3
Cr
3
Fourier expression of
diffusion equation
Q(h)
2
= h { D0 + 2h 2 2 K0 Q(h) + 1 D1 R(h)
t
2
+ 1 D2S(h) + 1 D3T(h) + }
3
4
4
2h { K1U(h) + K2V(h) + K3W(h) + }
The Cahn-Hilliard non-linear

diffusion equation is one of the
most useful approaches to
spinodal phase decomposition.
Recently, Miyazaki proposed a
general formula with a Fourier
expression of this non-linear
diffusion equation. However,
these approaches are meant to
be used, for isothermal heattreatment, and cannot be
directly applied these to a
phenomenon during the welding
process.
The Method of Analysis for Spinodal Decomposition

in thermal cycle process
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Cahn-Hilliard's non-linear
diffusion equation (extended)
D c
x
c
=
t
x
Cr
Cr
K c
x
2
x
Input of parameters
, cCr, thermal cycle
Input of initial composition-wave Q0(h)
Calculation of temp. &
material constants
Cr
Replacement of Fourier
waves for convolution
Fourier transformation FFT

Rf = QfQf, Sf = RfQf, Tf = SfQf
Uf = k3QfQf, Vf = UfQf, Wf = VfQf
Interdiffusion coefficient
2
2
D= M(Cr) 2 = M0c Fec Cr G

cCr
cCr2
Inverse Fourier transformation IFFT

Calculation of Q(h)/t
Q(h)t+t = Q(h)t + {Q(h)/t}tt
Gradient energy coefficient
K= 0 M(c Cr ) [(cCr ,T) + {(cCr ,T) /c Cr }cCr ]
Developed the method of analysis for the

decomposition in thermal cycle process by
extending the Cahn-Hilliard non-linear diffusion
equation to this processes and applied it to a
computer simulation of phase decomposition for
30Cr-2Mo steel.
Display?
YES
NO
Output of Q(h) & graphing

Completion of
thermal cycle?
NO
t = t + t
YES
End
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Two dimensional Evolution

the Cr-rich phase
induced by Spinodal
Decomposition in 30Cr2Mo steel
c
D
x
c
=
t
x
Cr
Cr
K c
x
2
x
3
Cr
3
In the early stage of decomposition ,until

the 2nd cycle, composition variations
develop monotonically with time; however,
they periodically fluctuate until the
spinodal decomposition has further
progressed.
On the basis of thus calculated results,
we tried to predict the degree of
embrittlement due to the spinodal
decomposition.
Theoretical approach for prediction of 475C

embrittlement in 30Cr-2Mo steel
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Relationship between Hv and vTE
Cut-through model
(Mott-Nabarro's equation)
V 4 / 3 N 1/ 6 3/ 2 1
HV
ln
10
V
3/ 2
1/ 2 4 / 3
KR V ln
3/ 2
Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,

K : Constant, V : Volume fraction of precipitates,
: Stiffness, N : Numbers of dislocation,
: Misfit between matrix and precipitates
3 /2
1/ 2 4 / 3
E
vT KR V
1
ln
V
The change in hardness Hv due to the phase decomposition well agree with the
value of R1/2V4/3{ln(1/V)}3/2 which is a hardenability parameter derived from
Mott-Nabarro precipitation hardening theory.
This fact suggests that hardening in this case follows the theory proposed by
Mott-Nabarro.
Theoretical approach for prediction of 475C

embrittlement in 30Cr-2Mo steel
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Relationship between Hv and vTE
Cut-through model
(Mott-Nabarro's equation)
3/ 2
V 4 / 3 N 1/ 6 3/ 2 1
HV
ln
10
V
3/ 2
3/2
Relationship between R1/2V1/4/32 {ln(1/V)}
and
4 /3
vTE
KR V ln
Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,

K : Constant, V : Volume fraction of precipitates,
: Stiffness, N : Numbers of dislocation,
: Misfit between matrix and precipitates
3 /2
1/ 2 4 / 3
E
vT KR V
On the other hand,

experimentally determined the
functional relationship between the
change in the transition
temperature of the Charpy impact
energy vTE, and that in the
Vickers hardness Hv.
1
ln
V
1st pass welding
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Example of the Calculated value of vTE in the triple

pass GTA weldment of 30Cr-2Mo steel
3rd pass welding
2nd pass welding
The high value ofvTE due to the

475 embrittlement can be clearly
recognized in the HAZ near the
bottom of the plate on the 2nd/3rd
pass welding, and it becomes
dominant as the weld pass
progresses.
It can be also seen that the
severely embrittled zone
corresponds to the a position that
has undergone triple heatings to
about 800K.
Contents
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1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Embrittlement due to sigma phase Precipitation

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20
WT.%Cr
40
60
80
100
1500
Temperature ()
700
1400
Temperature ()
800
1300
1200
600
X X XX+
1100
1000
500
X X XX
900
800
400
X X XX
0.2
0.4
NCr
0.6
0.8
700
1.0
Sigma phase precipitation,

which degrades not only
mechanical properties but also
corrosion resistance in alloys, is
well known, but still a serious
problem in stainless steel
weldments.
Phase diagram of Iron-Chromium Alloy
Microstructures of super duplex stainless steels

(heated at 1073 K for 1.8 ks)
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NAS64
SAF2507
DP3W
50m
M a te ria l
Si
M n
Ni
50m
Cr
M o
50m
Cu
S A F 2 5 0 7 0 .0 2 2 0 .3 6 0 .9 0 0 .0 2 1 0 .0 0 0 9 6 .8 6 2 5 .5 5 3 .8 2 0 .2 4 0 .0 9 5
D P 3W
N A S64
P R E /P R E W *
4 1 .9
0 .0 2 0 .3 2 0 .5 1 0 .0 2 3 0 .0 2 0 6 .8 5 2 5 .1 2 3 .1 7 2 .2 3 0 .4 6 0 .2 8 1
4 2 .7
0 .0 1 3 0 .9 0 0 .7 1 0 .0 2 6 0 .0 0 1 6 .4 5 2 4 .6 0 3 .2 8 0 .1 6
3 7 .9
The microstructures of the super duplex stainless steels heated at 1073 K

for 1.8ksec, which demonstrate sigma phase precipitation.
Sigma phase precipitated mainly at delta/gamma boundaries in these
steels.
Area fraction of phase (%)
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50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
101
Sigma phase precipitation Curves in super

duplex stainless steels
NAS64
Aging temperature
1073K
1123K
1173K
1223K
102
103
Aging time (s)
104
SAF2507
DP3W
102
103
104
Aging time (s)
103
104 105
Aging time (s)
Sigma phase precipitation phenomenon follows the Johnson-Mehl type of

kinetic equation in the case of weld metals of austenitic stainless steels.
Kinetics of Sigma Phase Precipitation

---Johnson-Mehl equation---
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1.0
Logln1/(1-y)
0.5
0
-0.5
1.0
NAS64
0.5
Aging temperature
1073K
1123K
1173K
1223K
SAF2507
n=1.32
-0.5
-1.0
-0.5
-1.5
-1.5
NAS64 base metal
102
103
Aging time (s)
-2.0
-2.5
104 101
y = 1 exp ( k t )
nn
n=1.62
SAF2507 base metal
102
103
Aging time (s)
DP3W
0.5
-1.0
-2.0
101
1.0
-1.0
-1.5
104 102
n=0.879
DP3W base metal
103
104
Aging time (s)
105
11
log
== nn log
log ln
ln
log tt ++ log
log kk
11 yy
A good linear relationship is found between the aging time and the fraction
precipitated, which indicates that the sigma phase precipitation in duplex stainless
steels also follows the Johnson-Mehl type kinetic equation.
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
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Prediction of the Amount of Sigma Phase during

thermal cycle process by additivity rule
Based on the
isothermal kinetics of
the sigma phase
precipitation
Applying the
T1
T2
T2
T3
t1 t2 t3
time
f(t)=fmax(t){1exp(k(t)tn)}
Additivity
rule
T3
T1
t1
t2
time
t3
additivity rule and

assuming that the
saturated volume
fraction of the
sigma phase and
the rate constant k
vary with
temperature, we
can calculate the
amount of sigma
phase precipitated
during an arbitrary
thermal cycle with
this equation.
F fdt f sat 1 expktn dt

F=fmax(1){1exp(k(1)tn)}
+fmax(2){1exp(k(2)tn)} k k0 expQ RT
+fmax(3){1exp(k(3)tn)}
+
F Saturated
volume of precipitation
The amount of sigma phase precipitated in SAF2507

during two types of synthetic thermal cycles
Area fraction of phase (%)
T e m p e ra t ur e ( K )
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Cycle-1
900
Cycle-2
Cycle-1
Cycle-2
(G.C.)
373
R.T.
: Pa tternBB
Pattern
: Pa
ttern AA
Pattern
C.R. : 5K/s
1200
H.R. : 80K/s
Cycle-3
(G.C.)
60
120
180
240
Time (s)
The calculated curves agree

fairly well with the measured
results in both of the thermal
cycles.
SAF2507 base metal
,: Measured
This correspondence suggests

that sigma phase precipitation
in duplex stainless steels during
the thermal cycle process can
be predicted by this
computation.
3
Pattern B
2
1
0
Pattern A
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of thermal cycles
10
Impact absorbed energy (J)
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80
70
60
Relationship between the amount of sigma phase and

the Charpy impact energy of duplex stainless steels
aged at 1173K
Aging temperature : 1173K
NAS64
SAF2507
DP3W
50
40
30
20
10
0
2 4
6 8 10 12 14 16
Area fraction of phase(%)
In each steel, the Charpy

impact energy decreases
drastically with increases in
the amount of sigma
phase.
Calculated amounts of the sigma phase and degree of

embrittlement due to sigma phase precipitation
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(a) Area fraction of sigma phase in multipass weldment
(Under the assumption)
(b) Decrement in impact absorbed energy in multipass weldment
(Under the assumption)
The most embrittled zone locates in HAZ parallel to the weld interface and the
level of the Charpy impact energy in this region is reduced by at most 17J from that
of the unaged base metal.

Contents
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1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Reasons for this enhancement of hot cracking

susceptibility in laser welds
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Generally speaking, decreasing the welding heat input is one of the most
effective countermeasures for preventing hot cracking.
From this reason, laser welding is a preferable safeguard against this
problem, because it can provide a lower welding heat input.
However, hot cracking susceptibility may be enhanced in some cases of the laser
welding of stainless steels and nickel base alloys.
There are two reasons for this enhancement:

Due
to a characteristic shape of penetration in laser welds ; 'the key hole

type of penetration.
Due to the rapid solidification and cooling that takes place during welding
with an extremely low heat input.
Types and positions of hot cracking in laser welds

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ot cracking susceptibility may be enhanced

in laser welding
due to a characteristic shape of
penetration in laser welds.
Center-line crack
Solidification
crack at neck
Inter-granular
crack at well
In the case of the key hole type of
penetration of laser welds, various types of
cracking may be experienced.
These types of cracking is caused by the
strain concentration at the specific part in the
welds or in HAZ
Hole by
shrinking during
solidification at
bead center
Liquation crack
at neck in HAZ
Mechanism of
solidification cracking
ot cracking susceptibility may be enhance

in laser welding
due to the rapid solidification
and cooling during welding .
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Strain
Solidification
brittleness
temperature
range (BTR)
TL
TS
(the second reason)
Local
In general, solidification
cracking will develop under
the condition that the
strain
thermal strain subjected to
the welds exceeds more
than the critical value that
(Cracking)
it can bear. That is,
solidification cracking will
occur when the strain
curve during cooling
(No cracking) intersect with the
solidification brittleness
Temperature temperature range ; BTR
Crack
Weld
metal
In laser welding with a

low heat input, the strain
rate during cooling will
increase, and consequently
may enhance the hot
cracking susceptibility.
Relationship between laser traveling velocity and total

crack length in laser welds (SUS316L (P+S:0.04%))
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60m
60m
Evidently, an increase in the laser traveling velocity produces a greater

susceptibility to hot cracking in laser welds.
In addition, note that as the laser traveling velocity rises, the location where hot
cracks occur changes from the dendrite boundaries to the center line of the welds.
Two major factors to influence hot cracking susceptibility

in laser welds
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BTR
Local strain
Strain
Theoretical
Theoreticalanalyses
analyses
of
ofthe
theliquidus
liquidus and
and
solidus
solidustemperatures
temperatures
during
duringlaser
laserwelding
welding
(Cracking )
Thermal
Thermal
elasticelasticplastic
plastic
analysis
analysis
(No cracking)
TL
Temperature
TS
The BTR in laser welds will vary because of changes in the liquidus and solidus
temperatures due to the rapid solidification.
The strain rate in laser
welds will also enhance due to rapid cooling.
Estimation of BTR in laser surface melted region

Effect of rapid
solidification
BTR
TL
Ts
Temperature
BTR
TL TL TsTs
Temperature
TL decreases due to supercooling
Laser
welding
Strain(%)
Arc welding
Strain(%)
Strain(%)
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BTR
TL Ts
Temperature
Ts varied by micro-segregation of
impurity elements
Determined the BTR in laser welds by theoretical analyses of the liquidus and
solidus temperaturesbased on the BTR for GTA welding obtained by the Varestraint
test.

Effect of rapid
solidification
BTR
TL
Ts
Temperature
BTR
TL TL TsTs
Temperature
TL decreases due to supercooling
Laser
welding
Strain(%)
Arc welding
Strain(%)
Strain(%)
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BTR
TL Ts
Temperature
Ts varied by micro-segregation of
impurity elements
2
mC
1
0
C
V2 +
V + G= 0
P 2 D2
D 1 1 K Iv P modified KGT model
In order to estimate the liqudus temperature, we calculated the dendrite tip

temperature (T*), which corresponds to the liquidus temperature through calculation by
the modified KGT model.

Effect of rapid
solidification
BTR
TL
Ts
Temperature
Laser
welding
Strain(%)
Arc welding
Strain(%)
Strain(%)
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BTR
TL TL TsTs
Temperature
decreasesdue
dueto
tosupercooling
supercooling
TTLLdecreases
To determine the solidus temperature, we
have conducted a theoretical analysis on the
effect of the micro-segregation of impurity
elements during welding on the solidus
temperature by using the data-base of
Thermo-calc.
BTR
TL Ts
Temperature
variedby
bymicro-segregation
micro-segregationof
of
TTssvaried
impurityelements
elements
impurity
S
C j k nesC j 1
C Ci
Ji = D i + 1
x
Thermo-Calc@
Theoretical model for calculation for impurity elements

segregation in solidification process
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N-1
Distribution of S
at liquid/solid boundary
i-1
L
CjS knesCj1
kes
knes
1
i+1
x
Rv
2DS
kes Equilibrium coefficient Rv Solidification speed

Ds Diffusion coefficient
Diffusion in solid
C Ci
Ji = D i + 1
x
2Dst
B
B
B
B
Ci
i
C
1
C
i1
i
i
i 1
x 2 2i 1
Cs
Sc
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
Non-equilibrium
coefficientKnes
12
L
S
S olidification
In this analysis,assumed the morphology of a dendrite to be a hexagonal column

and evaluated distribution of the solute concentration with a one-dimensional
diffusion model in which
the solute diffused in the direction
perpendicular to the grain
boundary
BTR calculated in laser welds of SUS316L

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1.0
LTV (mm/s)
20
40
60
0.6
0.4
0.2
P : 0.02%
1680
1640
1600
1560
Temperature (K)
1520
LTV (mm/s)
20
40
60
0.8
Strain (%)
Strain (%)
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
P : 0.03%
1680
1640
1600
1560
Temperature (K)
1520
The solidus temperature in the laser welds is found enhanced with a rise in the
laser traveling velocity due to the increase in the solidification rate.
On the other hand, the liqudus temperature in the laser welds decrease due to
supercooling in laser welds
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Direction of the the strain analyzed at the surface

of the welds
Laser traveling velocity : Increase
Analysis point and direction
=35
Calculated by Quick Therm
20mm/s
=50
40mm/s
=60
60mm/s
The thermal strain is another important factor to consider the occurrence of

cracking in welds
Used the 3-dimensional thermal elastic-plastic software package "Quick Therm" to
calculate the strain formed during welding in laser welds and analysed the strain
which is perpendicular not only to the center line of the weld but also dendrite
boundaries.
Local strain at the center perpendicular to laser

scanning direction
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Strain (%)
1.0
Center-line
1.2
LTV=60
1.0
0.8
0.6
LTV=40
0.4
LTV=20
0.2
0
1650
1600
Temperature (K)
1550
Strain (%)
1.2
LTV : Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)
Dendrite boundary
0.8
0.6
LTV=60
(=60)
0.4
LTV=40
(=50)
0.2
LTV=20
(=35)
1650
1600
Temperature (K)
1550
Examples of calculation which show that the change in the thermal strain
occurring during solidification increases with increasing laser traveling velocities.
In contrast, in the case of dendrite boundaries, the strain taking place with a laser
traveling velocity of 40mm/s is larger than that under other conditions.
Comparison between BTR and strain at the bead center

perpendicular to laser traveling direction
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Strain (%)
1.2
LTV = 40 mm/s
LTV = 20 mm/s
LTV = 60 mm/s
0.8
0.6
0.4
Cracking
Cracking
0.2
1650
1600
0.02 P+S
0.04
P+S
1550
1650
1600
1550
Temperature (K)
1650
1600
1550
SUS316L
LTV : Laser traveling velocity
Examine the possibility of solidification cracking in laser welds by

superimposing plots of the BTR and the strain produced during cooling in laser
welds.
When the laser traveling velocity is 40 or 60mm/s, the strain perpendicular to
the center line of the welds crosses to the BTR, which means that solidification
center of the welds in this laser traveling
cracks will occur at the
velocity range.
Comparison between BTR and strain perpendicular to

dendrite growth direction at dendrite boundaries
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Strain (%)
1.2
1
LTV = 40 mm/s
LTV = 20 mm/s
LTV = 60 mm/s
0.8
0.6
0.4
Cracking
0.2
0
1650
1600
0.02 P+S
0.04
P+S
1550
1650
1600
1550
Temperature (K)
1650
1600
1550
SUS316L
LTV : Laser traveling velocity
The strain curve estimated for dendrite boundaries crosses the BTR when the
laser traveling velocity equals 40mm/s.
This result suggests that solidification cracks will occur at the dendrite
boundaries in the welds in this laser traveling velocity range.
Comparison between measured and theoretically

calculated conditions to occur cracking
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P+S content (mass )
Cracking at dendrite boundary (Calculated)
Center-line cracking (Calculated)
0.04
Crack
Center-line
0.03
Crack
(Dendrite
boundary)
0.02
No crack
10
20
30
40
50
Laser traveling velocity (mm/s)
60
SUS316L
Good agreement between these two conditions determined by calculation and

experimentals.
These results suggest that the cause of solidification cracking in laser welds is
actually the increase in the strain rate during solidification,
in spite of the fact that the
BTR becomes narrower due to rapid solidification.
Enhanced susceptibility due to solidification mode shift

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J.C.Lippold, Weld. J., 73-6 (1994) 129s-139s
100
Austenite
(A)
0.1
F/MA
Ferrite
(F)
10
1
0.1
AF
FA
1.5
Creq/Nieq
S+P+B (mass%)
Solidification rate (mm/s)
1000
2.0
Arc welding
YAG welding
No crack
Crack
0.05
1.4
1.6
Cr/Ni-equivalent
1.8
There is another factor to be considered which may influence hot cracking

susceptibility in austenitic stainless steels in laser welding.
It is known that the solidification mode in austenitic stainless steel weld
metals shifts from primarily ferrite to primarily austenite when the solidification
rate becomes sufficiently high.
Enhanced susceptibility due to solidification mode shift

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J.C.Lippold, Weld. J., 73-6 (1994) 129s-139s
100
Austenite
(A)
0.1
F/MA
Ferrite
(F)
10
1
0.1
AF
FA
1.5
Creq/Nieq
S+P+B (mass%)
Solidification rate (mm/s)
1000
2.0
Arc welding
YAG welding
No crack
Crack
0.05
1.4
1.6
Cr/Ni-equivalent
1.8
Laser welding with a low heat input can provide in some cases such
solidification condition to cause solidification mode shift.
Alloys solidified in primarily austenite mode is more sensitive than ones in
primarily ferrite mode.
This is another reason for the increased hot cracking susceptibility of
stainless steels in laser
welding.
Condition for transition of solidification mode

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In the case of T*>T*
FA mode
In the case of T*>T*
T = T L + (mv ,iC m 0.iC0 ,i)

2
/ R V/ GD / V
*
*
i
AF mode
In general, the phase which has the higher dendrite tip temperature is more
likely to be the primary phase on solidification. Therefore the solidification mode
shift can be predicted if the dendrite tip temperature of each phase is known.
Theoretical model for dendrite growth

OsakaUniversity
T= m C0 C 1 + 2
R
2 V 2 + mC 0 1 K C V + G = 0
P 2 D2
D 1 1 K Iv P
R = 2
mC 0 1 K cV
G
D 1 1 K Iv P
Dendrite Tip Temperature T*
*
T
= T L + (m v ,iC *i m 0.iC0 ,i)
2
/ R V/ GD / V
(modified KGT model)

S.Fukumoto, W.Kurz, ISIJ Inter., 37-7 (1997) 677-684
S.Fukumoto, W.Kurz, ISIJ Inter., 38-1 (1998) 71-77
K Partition coefficient
R Dendrite tip radius
V Dendrite growth velocity
T Undercooling related to the tip radius
G Temperature gradient
D Liquid interdiffusion coefficient
P Peclet number
Iv(P) Ivantsov's solution
c Absolute stability coefficient
mv,i Velocity dependent liquidus slope
Gibbs-Thomson parameter
Used the modified Kurz-Giovanola-Trivedi (KGT) model, which was extended to

multicomponent alloys by Kurz in order to calculate the dendrite tip temperature.
According to the model, the dendrite tip radius, R, is expressed as a function of
dendrite growth velocity, V, as shown in this equation .
For multicomponent alloys, the dendrite tip temperature, T*, is given by this
equation.
Effect of dendrite growth velocity on dendrite tip

temperature of ferrite and austenite
OsakaUniversity
Dendrite tip temperature (K)
1750
1730
1710
1690
The dendrite tip
1670
1650
110-2
110-1
1100
1101
1102
temperature in austenite
rises above that in ferrite
at dendrite growth
velocities exceeding
0.9mm/s.
Dendrite growth velocity (mm/s)
23Cr-9Ni-0.34N steel
Comparison of calculated solidification mode change with

experimental results in laser welds of stainless steel
OsakaUniversity
AF mode
FA mode
15
Bead center
AF
10
FA
5
Predicted condition
to yield crack
1.3
1.4
Creq/Nieq
1.5
By using the above

mentioned results, you can
also predict the risk of hot
cracking by calculation
assuming that the
solidification mode change
from FA to AF will enhance
cracking susceptibility.
For instance, this figures
show the theoretically
predicted transition line from
FA to AF at the center part of
the weld metals for nitrogen
containing austenitic stainless
steels.
Comparison of calculated solidification mode change

with hot cracking susceptibility in laser welds of stainless
steel
OsakaUniversity
Crack
No crack
15
Bead center
AF
10
FA
5
Predicted condition
to yield crack
1.3
1.4
Creq/Nieq
The condition to yield AF mode

coincide with the condition to
occur hot cracking.
It means you can predict the
risk of hot cracking through
calculation of the mode shift from
FA to AF even in laser weld.
1.5
Contents
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1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Mechanism of ductility-dip crack

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Strain
Ductility curve
BTR
Ductility-dip cracking can

occur in various alloys
which exhibit a loss of
ductility below the solidus
temperature, when they are
subjected to a strain
sufficient to produce
cracking during cooling in
welding.
DTR
3
2
1
A ductility-dip crack
formed in weld metals is
normally very small, and is
sometimes called a 'micro
fissuring'.
Ductility-dip cracking
Temperature
Mechanism of ductility-dip crack

OsakaUniversity
Recently Invar alloy has

attracted special interest as
a suitable material for
cryogenic applications, such
as fuel transport pipes due
to its low thermal expansion
coefficient and good
toughness at low
temperatures.
Strain
Ductility curve
BTR
DTR
3
2
Invar alloy is however,

found to be very
susceptible to micro
fissuring in multi-pass welds
of heavy sectioned pipes.
1
Temperature
But, the mechanism of

micro fissuring in the weld
metals of Invar alloys is still
uncertain.
Surface of weld metal of Invar alloy after triple bead

longitudinal Varestraint
OsakaUniversity
Many cracks in original weld

pass which was reheated by a
subsequent pass. Cracks
preferentially occurred along
the columnar grains and/or
around the center line of the
original weld bead.
Fe-36Ni alloy
Effect of weld thermal cycles on cracking susceptibility

Total crack length (mm)
OsakaUniversity
Double-bead
Triple-bead
1100
1200
1000
1100
900
1000
900
800
Peak temperature range in HAZ (K)
Fe-36Ni alloy (0.011%S)
The total lengths of the cracks in the triple-bead test were much greater than
those in the double-bead test. We can see that this tendency predominated in the
peak temperature range between 1000K and 1100K.
Effect of S on susceptibility to ductility-dip cracking

OsakaUniversity
Double-bead Varestraint test

Ductility-dip crack in first bead
80
Total crack length (mm)
Augmented strain
1.6%
2.4%
60
The total length of the cracks
grew as the sulfur content in the
samples increased.
40
20
Fe-36Ni alloy
0
0.010
0.005
S content (%)
This experimental result

demonstrate that sulfur is evidently
detrimental to cracking
susceptibility in the weld metal.
0.015
The result of Auger analysis conducted on the fractured

surface in the multi-pass weld metal
OsakaUniversity
800
600
Fe-36Ni alloy
AES spectrum
400
200
c/s
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
Ni
S
Fe
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Kinetic energy (eV)
Effect of thermal cycles at peak temperature of 1000K on S concentration
Twice Average 7% Three times Average 9%
Sulfur is segregated on its surface. Moreover, the amount of sulfur on the grain
boundary increase with increase of welding pass.
Method of calculation for S segregation at grain

boundary during multi-pass weld thermal cycles
OsakaUniversity
StageI:Solidificationprocess
Melting point
StageII:Coolingprocess(aftersolidification)
The concentration of sulfur at the grain boundary
was analyzed for two stages:
Melting point
That is,
Stage I: the solidification segregation during

welding, StageII: the grain boundary segregation
during the cooling and reheating by the subsequent
weld passes.

OsakaUniversity
StageI:Solidificationprocess
Distribution of S at liquid/solid boundary
S
j
L
nes j1
C k C
kes
knes
1
Melting point
x
Rv
2DS
kes Equilibrium coefficient Rv Solidification speed

Ds Diffusion coefficient
Melting point
The same model as the one described in the
previous section was adopted for the

solidification segregation during welding.
thus, the concentration of sulfur after
completion of solidification was calculated by
this equation.

OsakaUniversity
As for the grain boundary segregation during the

cooling and reheating by subsequent weld passes, we
calculated the change in the sulfur concentration at
the grain boundary after solidification by the these
equations based on the equilibrium segregation
theory.
Melting point
StageII:Coolingprocess(aftersolidification)
Solute concentration change
CX
2DX t
B
B
B
B
i
C
1
C
C
X i X i 1
X i1
Xi
x 2 2i 1
Melting point
Boundary condition
2 Dst
4Dst
Csgb(t) Csgb (0)
1 exp 2 2 erfc
gb
gb
Cs () Cs (0)
1 d
1 d
C Concentration of solute, vacancy,
complex
k constant Ev Vacancy forming energy
The concentration of S at grain boundaries calculated

for multi-pass weld thermal cycles
P ea k tem p . of 2n d p ass = 10 00K P ea k tem p . of 2n d p ass = 80 0K
S concentration(%)
Temperature(K)
P ea k te m p . of 2n d pass = 12 00K
OsakaUniversity
1800
Temperature
1600
1400
1200K
1200
1000K
1000
800
600
400
4.0
1000K
1000K
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
3.0
Temperature
Temperature
1000K
800K
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
2.0
IN 4 (0.011% S )
1.0
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
Time(s)
0
100 120 140
IN 4 (0.011% S )
20
40
60
80
Time(s)
100 120 140

0
IN 4 (0.011% S )
20
40
60
80
100 120 140
Time(s)
[ P in
eakthe
tem liquid
p.of 3rd
pass =1000K
In the solidification process, the sulfur concentration
phase
rose as]
the solidification proceeded.

During cooling, the sulfur concentration at the grain boundaries first rapidly fell,
and then increased again with correspondent to the increase of its equilibrium
grain boundaries.
concentration at the
The concentration of S at grain boundaries calculated

for multi-pass weld thermal cycles
P eak tem p . of 2n d p ass = 1200K P ea k te m p . of 2n d p ass = 10 00K P eak te m p . of 2nd p ass = 800K
S concentration(%)
Temperature(K)
OsakaUniversity
1800
1600
1400
1200K
1200
1000
800
600
400
4.0
1000K
1000K
1000K
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
3.0
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
1000K
800K
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
C gb i (IN 4)
C gb i (IN 3)
C gb i (IN 0)
2.0
IN 4 (0.011% S )
1.0
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 3 (0.004% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
IN 0 (0.001% S )
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
Time(s)
0
100 120 140
IN 4 (0.011% S )
20
40
60
80
Time(s)
100 120 140

0
IN 4 (0.011% S )
20
40
60
80
100 120 140
Time(s)
[ P eak tem p.of
3rd pass =1000K
]
In the reheating process, the grain boundary sulfur concentrations
decreased
at
temperatures above about 1100 K, due to the reduced equilibrium concentration.

However, in the reheating process in which the peak temperature was less than 1000
K, the grain boundary concentration
of sulfur increased again
with elevations in its
equilibrium concentrations.
Mechanism of ductility-dip cracking in multi-pass weld

thermal cycles
OsakaUniversity
The theoretical analysis makes it clear;

1) the sulfur segregation at the grain
boundary in multi-pass welds was
enhanced by multi-pass weld
thermal cycles
2)
became dominant when a weld

metal was reheated twice at a
temperature range between 900
and 1100 K.
Varestraint test results have shown that this region
was the most susceptible to cracking.
1st pass
2nd pass
3rd pass
Grain boundary
Grain boundary
segregation of sulfur
Mechanism of ductility-dip cracking in multi-pass weld

thermal cycles
OsakaUniversity
1st
These results suggest

that the cause of
cracking in the multi-pass
welds of Inver alloy can
be attributed to decrease
in the critical strain of
DTR caused by grain
boundary weakening due
to sulfur segregation
Strain
2nd
DTR
BTR
Ductility
curve
3rd
Strain
curve
which has been

accelerated by the multipass weld thermal cycles.
1st
Temperature
2nd
3rd
Grain boundary
Grain boundary
segregation of sulfur
Contents
OsakaUniversity
1. Background
475 Embrittlement
Welding
4. Summary
Summary
OsakaUniversity
Calculation codes
Development
Better
Better
performance
performance
of joint
joint
of
Quantitative prediction of microstructure and properties

Precise understanding of mechanism
In the last few decade,mathematical approaches using computer technologies in
the welding metallurgy have significantly contributed to its recent developments.
Such approaches have enabled a more precise understanding of welding
metallurgical phenomena and a more accurate comprehension of the mechanism for
weld defects, including weld cracking through a visualization of the results.
Moreover, mathematical approaches have provided important information to
control weld defects, which ensures better weldment performance and the reliability
of welded joints.
Further
development of mathematical
modeling should be more

encouraged.
OsakaUniversity
Thank you for kind your attention!
The method for examination of reheat cracking

susceptibility
OsakaUniversity
2-bead Varestraint test
1st bead
3-bead Varestraint test
2nd bead
3rd bead
2nd bead
1st bead
Test conditions
Welding current 150A

Welding voltage 13V
Welding speed
1.67mm/s
Augmented strain 1.6, 2.4,
3.6%
Surface appearance of laser surface melted regions

OsakaUniversity
1mm
1mm
60m
60m
1.2
LTV=60
Center element
QuickTime
tHg - JPEG LvO
sN`KvB
Melted region
Lser scanning direction

Strain ( )
Osaka University
Local strain at the center perpendicular to

laser scanning direction
0.8
LTV=40
0.6
0.4
LTV=20
0.2
0
1690
1650
1610
1570
Temperature (K)
Temperature
(K)
1530
The increment of local strain at the center part in

laser surface melted region during solidification
increases with increasing laser traveling velocities.
Lab. of Material Joining Process
Perpendicular
to dendrite
growth direction
Laser scanning direction
Osaka University
Local strain at dendrite boundaries perpendicular

to dendrite growth direction

Element located at
0.3mm from center
QuickTime
tHg - JPEG LvO
sN`KvB
Melted region
QuickTime
tHg - JPEG LvO
sN`KvB
QuickTime
tHg - JPEG LvO
sN`KvB
Osaka University
Local strain at dendrite boundaries perpendicular

to dendrite growth direction (Calculated)
1.2
Strain ( )
1
0.8
LTV=40
0.6
0.4
LTV=20
0.2
LTV=60
0
1690
1650
1610
1570
Temperature (K)
Temperature (K)
1530
The increment of local strain in the condition of laser traveling velocity of 40mm/s is larger than the
strain in other conditions. That is, in this case, not only the laser traveling velocity but also the dendrite
growth direction affects the local strain at dendrite boundaries.

Recent Topics of Welding Metallurgy Relating To Hot Cracking and Embrittlement in Iron and Nickel-Base Alloys

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Recent Topics of Welding Metallurgy Relating To Hot Cracking and Embrittlement in Iron and Nickel-Base Alloys

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OsakaUniversity

Recent Topics of Welding Metallurgy

Nieq %Ni 30%C 0.5%Mn

Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickelbase alloys

Need for researches

Creq %Cr %Mo 0.5%Si 0.5%Nb

Nieq %Ni 30%C 0.5%Mn

Prevalent problems in welds of iron-base and nickelbase alloys

Need for researches

Creq %Cr %Mo 0.5%Si 0.5%Nb

duplex stainless steels.

Spinodal Phase Decomposition in Chromium

Theoretical Analysis of Spinodal Decomposition during

The Cahn-Hilliard non-linear

The Method of Analysis for Spinodal Decomposition

Fourier transformation FFT

D= M(Cr) 2 = M0c Fec Cr G

Inverse Fourier transformation IFFT

Gradient energy coefficient

K= 0 M(c Cr ) [(cCr ,T) + {(cCr ,T) /c Cr }cCr ]

Developed the method of analysis for the

Output of Q(h) & graphing

Two dimensional Evolution

In the early stage of decomposition ,until

Theoretical approach for prediction of 475C

Relationship between Hv and vTE

Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,

Theoretical approach for prediction of 475C

Relationship between Hv and vTE

Hv : Hardness increment, R : Radius of precipitates,

On the other hand,

Vickers hardness Hv.

1st pass welding

Example of the Calculated value of vTE in the triple

3rd pass welding

2nd pass welding

The high value ofvTE due to the

Embrittlement due to sigma phase Precipitation

Sigma phase precipitation,

Phase diagram of Iron-Chromium Alloy

Microstructures of super duplex stainless steels

The microstructures of the super duplex stainless steels heated at 1073 K

Area fraction of phase (%)

Sigma phase precipitation Curves in super

Sigma phase precipitation phenomenon follows the Johnson-Mehl type of

Kinetics of Sigma Phase Precipitation

Aging time (s)

Aging time (s)

Aging time (s)

Prediction of the Amount of Sigma Phase during

additivity rule and

F fdt f sat 1 expktn dt

The amount of sigma phase precipitated in SAF2507

Area fraction of phase (%)

The calculated curves agree

SAF2507 base metal

This correspondence suggests

Number of thermal cycles

Impact absorbed energy (J)

Relationship between the amount of sigma phase and

In each steel, the Charpy

Calculated amounts of the sigma phase and degree of

(a) Area fraction of sigma phase in multipass weldment

In the case of T>T

In the case of T>T