Construction Materials

Timber and Wood

Classification of Trees
Endogenous. Grow end-wards. Palm,
bamboo, etc
Exogenous. Grow outwards
Conifers. Evergreen trees. Deodar, chir, fir,
kail, pine, etc. Distinct annual rings, straight
fibers, light color, resinous and light weight
Deciduous. Flat board leaves. Oak, teak,
shishum, poplar and maple. Indistinct annual
rings, hard wood, non-resinous, dark in color
and heavy weight

Classification of Timber
On the basis of position
Standing timber. Living tree
Rough timber. Felled trees
Converted timber. Logs sawn into planks, posts, etc

On the basis of grading

Selected grade. Due to defects, basic strength
reduced not more than 12.5%
Standard grade. Due to defects basic strength
reduced not more than 25%
Common grade. Due to defects basic strength
reduced not more than 37.5%

Classification of Timber
On the basis of Modulus of Elasticity
Group A:
Group B:
Group C:

Bending modulus > 12.5 kN/mm2

Bending modulus from 9.8 kN/mm 2 to
12.5 kN/mm2
Bending modulus from 5.6 kN/mm 2 to
9.8 kN/mm2

On the basis of Availability

X
Y
Z

most common, exceeding 1415 m3 per year

common, 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
less common, below 355 m3

Classification of Timber
On the basis of Durability. Specimen of 600 x 50 x 50
mm buried in ground to half length, to determine
condition at where ages
High durability: Average life more than 120 months
Moderate durability: Average life between 120 and 60 months
Low durability: Average life less than 60 months

On the basis of seasoning characteristics

High refractory (class A). Slow and difficult to season
Moderately refractory (class B). Seasoned under protection
against rapid drying
Non-refractory (class C). Can be rapidly seasoned free from
defects

Classification of Timber
On the basis of Treatability. Resistance
offered to preservatives under a working
pressure of 1.05 N/mm2
Easily treatable
Treatable but complete preservation not easily
obtained
Partially treatable
Refractory to treatment
Very refractory to treatment

Hard and Soft Wood

Property Soft Wood Hard Wood

Color
Lighter
Darker
Growth
Faster Slower
Weight
Lighter
Heavier
Density
Low High
Annual Rings
Distinct
Indistinct
Heart wood &
Indistinguishable
distinguishable
Sap wood
Strength Strong along grains Strong along
& across grains
Conversion
Easy Difficult
Resinous Exists in pores
Does not exist
Examples Chir, Fir, Conifer
Teak, sal, shisham

Structure of Timber
Tree
Crown: branches and leaves
Trunk
Roots

Structure of timber
Macro structure
Micro structure

Cross section of a tree

Bark
Cambium
Sap wood
Heart wood
Pith

Characteristics of Good Timber

Narrow annular rings, closer the rings greater is
the strength
Compact medullary rays
Dark color
Uniform texture
Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
When struck sonorous sound is produced
Free from the defects in timber
Heavy weight
No woolliness at fresh cut surface

Seasoning of Timber
Reduces the shrinkage and warping after
placement in structure
Increase strength, durability and
workability
Reduce its tendency to split and decay
Make it suitable for painting
Reduce its weight

Seasoning of Timber
Natural or air seasoning
Artificial seasoning
Water seasoning
Boiling
Kiln seasoning
Chemical or salt seasoning
Electric seasoning
McNeills process

Defects in Timber
Shakes separations between annual rings
Heart shake shrinkage of heart wood
Cup shake curved split among annual rings
Star shake radial splits or cracks

Rind gall growth of sapwood layer over wounds

End splits evaporation of end grains of log
Twisted fibers wind turning the trunk
Upsets crushing of transverse fibers due to winds
Foxiness yellow or red sign of decay
Rupture injury or impact

Defects in Timber

Knots bases of twigs buried in mother branch annual rings

Size based

Pin knot under 12 mm

Small knot 12 to 20 mm
Medium knot 20 to 40 mm
Large knot over 40 mm

Form based
Round knot and Spike knot

Quality based

Sound knot hard and solid as surrounding wood

Decayed knot contains advance decay, softer than surrounding wood
Encased knot annual rings fail to grow into fibers of surrounding wood
Tight knot knot so securely fastened that it holds its position in finished
product

Occurrence based
Single knot wood fibers deflect around one knot
Cluster knot wood fibers deflect around two or more knots as one unit
Branch knot two or more knots radiating from one common center

Diseases and Decay

Diseases
Dry rot
Wet rot

Decay
Decay due to fungal and bacterial attack
Damage due to insects
Termites, white ants
Beetles powder post beetles, long horn beetles, ambrosia
beetle, furniture beetles, death watch beetles
Carpenter ants

Damage due to rodents

Timber Preservation
Preservatives

Oil type preservatives

Water soluble preservatives
Solvent treatment
Acetic anhydride treatment

Treatment processes

Surface application
Soaking treatment
Hot and cold process
Boucherie process
Full cell or Bethel process
Empty cell processes Lowery and Rueping

Tests of Timber

Specific gravity
Volumetric shrinkage
Radial and tangential shrinkage
Static bending strength
One point loading test
Two point loading test

Impact bending strength

Tests of Timber
Compressive strength
Parallel to grain
Perpendicular to grain

Hardness under static indentation test

Shear strength test
Tensile strength test
Parallel to grain
Perpendicular to grain

Tests of Timber
Cleavage strength test
Brittleness test
Izod impact test
Charpy impact test

Torsional strength test

Moisture content test
Oven drying method
Electrical moisture meter method
Distillation method

Physical Properties of Wood

Density
Bulk modulus
Moisture movement
Shrinkage
Swelling
Heat conductivity
Sound conductivity
Resistance to acids and alkalis

Mechanical Properties of Wood

Compressive strength
Tensile strength
Bending strength
Shearing strength
Stiffness
Toughness
Cleavability
Hardness
Moisture effect
Temperature effect

Wood Products

Veneers
Plywood
Fiber Boards
Particle Boards or Chip Boards
Block Boards
Batten Boards
Lamina Boards