HUMAN NUTRITION

Alimentary canal
The human digestive system consists of the

alimentary canal and its associated organs.

Main regions of the alimentary canal and
associated organs are:
1.Mouth, teeth, salivary glands
2.Oesophagus
3.Stomach
4.Pancreas, liver, gall bladder
5.Small intestine (duodenum + ileum)
6.Large intestine (colon + rectum)
7.Anus.

Food in our digestive system passes through

following 5 main phases:

1. INGESTION: The taking of substances, e.g. food and drink,

into the body through the mouth.

2. DIGESTION: The break-down of large insoluble food
molecules into smaller, water soluble molecules. It is of
two types.
3. MECHANICAL DIGESTION: It is the breakdown of food into
smaller pieces without chemical change to the food
molecules. Ex: in mouth by teeth, in stomach by peristalsis.
4. CHEMICAL DIGESTION: It is the breakdown of large,
insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules by using
enzymes.

ABSORPTION: It is the movement of small food

molecules and ions through the walls of the intestine
into the blood.
6. ASSIMILATION: It is the movement of digested food
molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used, becoming part of the cells.
7. EGESTION: It is the passing out of food that has not
been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the
anus.
5.

MOUTH

What happen in mouth?

1. Mastication/chewing of food
Produces bolus which is easier to swallow and
Increases the surface area for enzyme action.
2. Salivary glands in mouth produce saliva which consists
of: water, salts, mucin and enzyme amylase.
Chemical breakdown of starch to maltose -by enzymesalivary amylase.
Water and mucin in saliva moistens and dissolves
food.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate in saliva helps to keep
the pH in mouth at about 6.5 7.5 [optimum for
amylase].
Chloride ions in saliva activate the salivary amylase

ESOPHAGUS

STOMACH
Digests the food mechanically and chemically.
Begins chemical breakdown of proteins by protease

enzyme called-pepsin.
The stomach walls secrete gastric juice which contains:
Mucus
Pepsin
Hydrochloric acid:
Kills microbes entering with food.
Changes inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin and provides

pepsin an optimum pH to work.

 Its a muscular bag which mixes and churns food with

gastric juices to form chyme.

Sphincters control the movement of food
Absorbs some fat-soluble substances (for example,
alcohol, aspirin)
Possesses antimicrobial functions
No carbohydrates are digested in the stomach.

LIVER
Produces BILE. Bile contains:
1. Water
2. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Bile emulsify fats and give them a much larger

surface area.
Bile doesnt have any digestive enzymes therefore bile
doesnt digest the fats.

GALL BLADDER
Stores, concentrates, and releases bile

through a duct into duodenum.

PANCREAS
Produces pancreatic juice which contains:
Amylase
Trypsin
Lipase
Hydrogen carbonates

DUODENUM
Initial region of small intestine.
Receives bile from liver and pancreatic

juice from pancreas.

SMALL INTESTINE (or)

ILEUM

SMALL INTESTINE (or)

ILEUM

Site where most digestion and most absorption of

nutrients occur.
Absorption may occur either by diffusion or active
transport.
1.Amino acids, sugars and salts are taken up by
active transport into the blood capillaries.
They are then carried by capillaries which join up to form veins.

Veins unite to form a large vein called Hepatic portal vein.

The hepatic portal vein carries all the blood with absorbed
digested food from the intestine to the liver.

2.Fatty acids and glycerol and most vitamins diffuse

easily into the epithelial cells. These recombine and

enter lacteals. The fluid in the lacteals flow into the
lymphatic system.

SMALL INTESTINE (or)

ILEUM
Ileum is very long and also narrow.
Propels food at a slower rate.
The surface of the ileum is highly folded,

into structures called villi which give a large

internal surface area for more absorption.
It has a layer of muscle which causes
movement.
The small intestine also absorbs 5-10dm3 of
water every day; it is the site where most of
the water is reabsorbed.

LARGE INTESTINE
Absorbs water, electrolytes, and vitamins

produced by bacteria.
Propels faeces toward rectum which
contains:
Cellulose
Lignin
Bile pigments
Bacteria
Intestinal cells

RECTUM
The faeces is stored and compacted in

the rectum and is then passed out of the

body through anus.
This process is called as egestion or
defecation.

STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

PROCESS OF TOOTH DECAY

Food particles, in particular the sweet foods, stick

to the teeth.
Germs/bacteria grow on the teeth and help in the
formation of plaques.
Plaque is the sticky deposits that collect, in
particular, around the gum line.
If plaque collects over time it will harden into
tartar.
The bacteria in plaque uses the food and drink that
we eat (especially sugars) to make acid. Some
foods, like fizzy drinks and lollies are already acidic.

 This acid attacks the tooth's outer layer enamel

and dissolves it away (erosion). Over time, a

small hole known as a cavity can develop on the
surface of the tooth (enamel).
Once cavities have formed in the enamel, the
plaque and bacteria can reach the dentine.
As the dentine is softer than the enamel, the
process of tooth decay speeds up.
Without treatment, the plaque and bacteria will
then enter the pulp. At this stage, your nerves
will be exposed to the bacteria, making your
tooth very severely painful.

PLAQUE

PREVETION OF TOOTHDECAY
Eat less sweets.
Avoid eating starchy and sweet foods before

sleeping in particular.
Brush teeth regularly before and after eating
and also before and after sleep (morning &
night).
Use dental floss
use tooth paste which:
1. contains flouride
2. contains bactericide
3. Is alkaline

Visit dentist regularly

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
chewing/mastication done by teeth
tongue movements that help mix food with

saliva.
mechanical churning of food in the stomach.
contraction of muscles in small intestines.
emulsification of fats by Bile

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Amylase
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
Proteases
Lipase

CHEMICAL DIGESTION

ABSORPTION
Adaptations:
It is very long
Its walls are folded .
The folds also have numerous tiny finger-like projections

called villi.
The epithelial cells have micro villi .
These collectively form a brush border.
Has a rich blood supply

VILLI AND MICROVILLI

Lined with thin walled epithelial cells
Has microscopic projections called as micro villi
Contains digestive enzymes
Contains a network of capillaries
Contains lacteal
Cells contain a lot of mitochondria
Carrier proteins

CHOLERA
Cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae.
Symptoms are diarrhea, vomiting.
Transmitted through water and by flies it is

transmitted to food.
Bacteria binds to intestinal cells and grows.
Produces toxins.

HOW IT HAPPENS?
Toxins stimulates epithelial cells of intestine to

pump Chloride ions from cells out into the

lumen.
This lowers water potential and water moves
out of epithelial cells into intestines lumen.
Water and ions lost in this way are replaced by
blood.
This results in loss of water from the body and
causes dehydration.
Severe dehydration can lead to heart failure and
in some cases death.

ORAL REHYDRATION
THERAPY-(ORT)
Is a simple treatment where water mixed
with water and salts is given to patients.
This will replace the waer and salts lost by
diarrhoea.