I.

Basic Techniques in Structural Geology

Field measurements and mapping

Terminology on folds and folds
Stereographic projections
From maps to cross-sections
Growth Strata
Seismic Imaging

 Twiss and Moores, Structural geology,

Chapter 2.
C.M.R. Fowler, The Solid Earth, An
introduction to Global Geophysics
Shaw, Connors and Suppe, Seismic
Interpretation of Contractional Fault-related
Folds (AAPG Seismic Altlas, #53)
http://principles.ou.edu/seismic_explo/reflect/
reflect.html

Snells laws

- If 1< 2 then all there is

no energy refracted if i>ic,
where the critical angle is
defined by
ic= sin-1(V1/V2)

vp

3
K
4

Rock
Granite
Basalt
Limestone
Sandstone
Shale

Vp (km/s)
5.0
5.5
6.0
4.2
2.5

Seismic Imaging Techniques

Source

geophones

Direct

time

Reflected

Refracted

Seismic reflection
Seismic refraction

Seismic Imaging Techniques

Source

geophones

Travel time of P wave

V1
V2
V1 < V 2

Seismic refraction
Seismic reflection

Critical distance: xc
Crossover distance: Xcross

Seismic Imaging Techniques

Source

geophones

Travel time of P wave

V1
V2
V1 < V 2

Seismic refraction
Seismic reflection

Critical distance: xc
Crossover distance: Xcross

Seismic Imaging Techniques

Source

geophones

Travel time of P wave

V1
V2
V1 < V 2

Seismic refraction
Seismic reflection

Critical distance: xc
Crossover distance: Xcross

Seismic Reflection
Source

geophones

1v1
2 v2

Reflection coefficient

2 v2 1v1
R
1v1 2 v2

A typical value for R is 0.001

Reflectors reflect contrasts of
vp
acoustic impedance:
Polarity of reflected wave depends on
sign of reflection coefficient

Simple zero-offset Reflection survey

An image of the subsurface is
obtained by plotting seismograms
side by side.
Reflections are generally faint
The image obtained this way is in
two-way time, not depth. (to
convert to depth the velocity needs
to be determined).

For these reasons it is

advantageous to deploy lines
of geophones (with a range of
offsets)

Seismic Reflection
Source
A

geophones
Two-way travel time is:
x

2
t
v1

1v1
2 v2

Or

AB BC
t

v1
v1

2
x
z2
4

2
2
2
z
x
x
t 2 4 2 2 t02 2
v1 v1
v1

- t0 is the two-way normal

incidence travel time

t0

- An horizontal reflector
generates an hyperbola in
time
- The V velocity can be
determined by plotting t2 as
function of x2.

Seismic Reflection
Source
A

geophones

AB BC
t

v1
v1

Two-way travel time is:

x

1v1
2 v2

2
t
v1
Or

x2
z
4
2

z 2 x2
x2
2
t 4 2 2 t0 2
v1 v1
v1
2

- t0 is the two-way normal

incidence travel time

t0

- An horizontal reflector
generates an hyperbola in
time
- The V velocity can be
determined by plotting t2 as
function of x2.

Common Mid- Point (CMP) Stacking

The seismograms corresponding to
the various offsets can be corrected
to account for the effect of the offset
on the arrival time (Normal Move
Out), and then stacked to simulate a
zero offset seismograms with
enhanced signal to noise ratio.
The Normal Move Out is :

x2
t t t0 t 2 t0
v1
2
0

Common Mid- Point Stacking

In case of multiple layers the t2-x2 plot yields the Root
Mean Square velocity,VRMS, (also called stacking
velocity):
The equation is used to correct for NMO before stacking.
VRMS relates to interval velocity according to Dixs
equation

Interval velocities and thicknesses are determined from

Unmigrated Seismic Reflection Profile

- Seismograms are plotted side by side.
- Vertical axis is the two-way travel time
- A Common Mid-Point (CMP) profile show records as if shots and
geophones were coincident

Migration
In a stacked profile all reflections are
plotted as if they were coming from
vertical ray paths. This is a distorted view
of the sub-surface.
Diffractions
Migration aims at correcting these distortions
and diffractions (assuming that all reflections
are in the plane of the section).

Distortions

Distortions

Distortions

An example with Synthetic seismograms

Diffractions

Most Common Artifacts

Multiples (Sediment/Basement interface or
water/sea bottom interface in marine survey)
Sideswipes (reflections out of the plane of
the section) can mess up the migration
process.
Incorrectly migrated diffractions (they look
like anticlines but are not)
Pull-up and Pull-down (not really artifacts)

Multiples
geophones
0

1v1

t1

Primary reflection

2 v2
2.t1
Time

Source

First multiple

Reflection seismic Line DLC9708 (Hopper et al., 1997).

Extent of corresponding sparker seismic lines marked by
thick line at top. Three first multiples can be seen lower in the
section

Unmigrated Seismic Reflection Profile

Migrated Seismic Reflection Profile

Still not directly an image of the subsurface.

Shortcomingsinseismicimagesoffolds

Foldscanbedistortedoronly
partiallyimagedinseismic
sections.Twocommon
shortcomingsare:
(1)Overlappingreflectionsinun
migratedorundermigrated
sections;

(2)lackofimagingofsteeply
dippingfoldlimbs.
NB:Notealsopullup.

Deformation since Sueyi Time