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Atomic

Theory
A Brief History

Atoms are made up of subatomic


particles called protons,
neutrons and electrons

How do we know that?

Vocabulary

Atom: The smallest unit of an element,


having all the characteristics of that
element and consisting of a dense, central,
positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
system of electrons.

Molecule: The smallest particle of a


substance that retains the chemical and
physical properties of the substance and is
composed of two or more atoms.

Compound: A compound is a substance


made up of atoms representing more than
one element bonded together and
exhibiting distinct physical and chemical
characteristics
Example: H2O, H2SO4

Aristotle
(circa. 400 B.C.)
Matter is not made of particles, but rather is
continuous.
The continuous matter is called hyle.
There were only four elements

Earth, Air, Fire, Water

Democritus
(circa. 400 B.C.)

Matter is made of empty space and


tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms are indivisible.
There are different types of atoms
for each material in the world.

Why was Democritus


Ignored?
Because the early Greek
philosophers did not experiment
and because Aristotle was an
established teacher and because
the church was opposed to soul
atoms, the views of Democritus
were not accepted until the 19th
century.

Pre-Atomic Postulates

Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier,


1789)
During a chemical reaction, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to the total mass of the
products.

Law of Definite Proportions (Proust, 1799)


When atoms combine to form compounds, they
always combine in the same simple, small whole
number proportions.
Example: Water is always H2O
Example: Sulfuric Acid is always H2SO4

John Dalton
(early 1803)

Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms


which are indivisible and indestructible.
All atoms of a particular element are identical.
Atoms of different elements differ in mass
and properties.
Atoms combine in whole number ratios to
form compound atoms.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined,
separated, or rearranged but are never created,
destroyed, or changed

Why were Daltons views


accepted?

The scientific method is now the proper


way to do science.
Daltons theory was based on
experimental observations: the law of
Conservation of Mass and the law of
Definite Proportions.
Daltons theory correctly predicted the
outcome of future experiments. These
predictions became the law of Multiple
Proportions.

The Dalton Atom


John Dalton examined the empirical
proportions of elements that made up
chemical compounds.
At this stage, the atom was still seen as an
indivisible object, with no internal structure.
No electron, proton and neutron.

Law of Multiple
Proportions

A law proposed by Dalton which states that


when elements combine, they do so in the
ratio of small whole numbers. For example
carbon and oxygen react to form CO or CO2

You are comparing the ratio of one element in


two compounds.
Ex. Oxygen in CO and CO2 is 1:2

Amedo Avogadro

Avogadro, among other achievements, was


able to explain the existence of diatomic
molecules.
Avogadros Law: Equal volumes of any gas at the
same temperature and pressure, have the
same number of particles and same volume.
1 mole = 6.023x1023 particles.
1 mole = 22.4 Liters

J.J. Thomson set up a crookes


tube with a anodic and
cathodic ends

The Experiment

When electricity was applied to the tube, a beam was


emitted from the cathodic (-) plate
Thomson then assumed the particles emitted were
charged
To test this theory, he applied a magnetic field to the
tube and bent the beam

Further experimentation

He tested the cathode ray further by


applying an electrical field to the tube
using paddles

The ray turned around the ray is


negatively charged.

Conclusions

He concluded that the particles in the tube


were negatively charged and had mass
mass = 9.109 x 10-31kg

Since these particles are negatively


charged, but the atoms are neutral, there
must be other particles in an atom

Problem: This requires too many electrons!

Thomson Model
The discovery of the electron by J. J.
Thomson showed that atoms did have some
kind of internal structure.
The Thomson model of the atom described
the atom as a "pudding" of positive charge,
with negatively charged electrons
embedded

J.J. Thomsons Plum Pudding


Model
Positively
charged
pudding

Negatively
charged particles
later named
electrons

Milliken and the Oil


Droplet

In 1909, Robert Milliken performed an


experiment using droplets of oil to
determine the charge of an electron.
electrons, e, e-, -1.602 x 10-19C

Lord Rutherfords
Experiment
Ernest Rutherford conducted
experiments to test the Thomson model
He directed alpha particles through a
thin gold foil and measured them with a
film
Most particles went through the foil

But, some were deflected,

Rutherfords Hypothesis
England, 1911

Rutherford hypothesized that the particles


were travelling through a void and
occasionally bouncing off a concentrated
positive charge.

Conclusion

There must be a dense region with positive


charges surrounded by the electrons

An atom is mostly empty space with a dense


region in the middle.
This dense region is called the nucleus
He measured the number of particles deflected
and the angles and calculated that the radius of
the nucleus was 1/10,000 of the whole atom

Protons
The discovery was made and protons were
recognized
The mass of a proton is 2000x the mass of
an electron
1.673 x 10-27 kg

Were not done yet ...


30 years later, Irene Curie, the daughter of
the great Madame Curie, produced a beam
of particles that could go through almost
anything
And James Chadwick determined this beam
was not affected by a magnetic field (no
charge!)
Neutrons were given credit

Coulombs Law
Since like charges repel, how can the
nucleus be stable with protons (+) and
neutrons (0)?
Coulombs Law: the closer two charges
are, the greater the force between them
As the distance between like charges
decreases, the force between them
increases.

Problems with Rutherfords


model
According to classical physics, an electron
in orbit around an atomic nucleus should
emit photons continuously as they are
accelerating in a curved path.
The loss of energy should cause the
electron to collide with the nucleus and
collapse the atom.

Elemental Quandary

The Rutherford model was unable to explain


the difference in the visible spectrum for
each element.

Visible-line Spectrum
When an elemental gas is excited by
electricity, it emits a distinct visible light
pattern.
The color of each spectral line is identified
by the wavelength ()

Electromagnetic Spectrum

All of the frequencies or wavelengths of


electromagnetic radiation.

Wavelength

The wavelength is the distance between


repeating units of a wave pattern () and
measured in nm

Frequency
Frequency is the measurement of the
number of times that a repeated event
occurs per unit of time (Hz)
The blue wave has the greatest frequency.

Hydrogen

Carbon

Oxygen

Xenon

Compare these spectrum

Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen and Xenon

Niels Bohr
Denmark, 1913
In 1913, Bohr proposed that electrons were
restricted to certain fixed circular orbits.
Orbits are energy levels
Electrons can jump from ground state to an
excited state by absorbing energy or a
photon with the precise wavelength.

Neils Bohr
(early
1900s)
Electrons
travel around the nucleus in specific
energy levels.
Electrons have a ground state and an excited
state
Electrons do not radiate energy in their
normal energy level called the ground
state.
Electrons absorb energy and move to
energy levels further from the nucleus
called excited states.
Electrons lose energy (light) as they return
to lower energy levels.

The Bohr Atom


Light

Excited States

Nucleus

Ground
State

The Bohr Planetary Atomic


Model

The Bohr Atom

In the Bohr Model the neutrons


and protons occupy a dense
central region called the
nucleus, and the electrons
orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbiting the Sun

The Modern Atom

The modern atom is further defined by the


works of these scientists:

de Broglie
Max Plank
Albert Einstein
Heisenberg
Erwin Schrodinger

Problems with the Planetary


Model

This model only works for Hydrogen

Max Plank
Germany, 1918

Energy is gained or lost in discrete


packets called quanta
Calculated the amount of energy
and determined that it is a constant
Planks Constant
hv

Founded quantum mechanics


theory
He was also an accomplished
musician!

de Broglie, 1924

Electrons move like waves and so have


properties of waves.

Albert Einstein
Einstein was simultaneously working on

the photoelectric effect, the theory of


relativity and the energy-mass
relationship.

Heisenberg, 1925

Heisenberg proposed that it is not


possible to know the position and
momentum of an electron at the same
time.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Erwin Schrdinger
Austria, 1920s

Electrons have characteristics associated


with waves and particles; wave-particle
duality.

Electrons are located around the nucleus in


orbitals
An orbital is a probability that an electron will be
there

4 quantum numbers indicate the probable


location of the electron wave.

Schrdinger Wave
Equation
2/x2 + 2/y2 + 2/z2 + 82m/h2(EV)=0

(E-V) = 2 2me4/h2n2
The

equation predicts the orbital

The Modern Atomic


View

The Wave-Mechanical Model

Another View

Start-up
Answer the following
questions in your
notes:
Which of these conclusions can be drawn from
Rutherfords experiment?
A. Each atom contains electrons.
B. The nucleus of an atom can be split.
C. Each atom contains protons.
D. Atoms are mostly empty space.

What did Rutherfords atomic model


look like?

Lets Review

The Dalton Atom


John Dalton examined the empirical
proportions of elements that made up
chemical compounds.
At this stage, the atom was still seen as an
indivisible object, with no internal structure.

Thomson Model
The discovery of the electron by J. J.
Thomson showed that atoms did have some
kind of internal structure.
The Thomson model of the atom described
the atom as a "pudding" of positive charge,
with negatively charged electrons
embedded

Rutherford Model

The Rutherford model described the atom


made up of a dense nucleus of
approximately containing positively charged
particles, surrounded by an electron cloud of
approximately.

Nuclear Model

Niels Bohr
The Bohr Model is probably familiar as the
"planetary model" of the atom, the figure is
used as a symbol for atomic energy
The neutrons and protons occupy a dense
central region called the nucleus, and the
electrons orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbiting the Sun

Max Plank

Father of Quantum Physics


Electrons absorb and emit
energy in discrete
packets called quanta

Erwin Schrdinger

Electrons exist in specific orbitals and are


assigned separate quantum numbers

The Theory

No two electrons can have the same


quantum number (Pauli Exclusion
Principle)
No two electrons can occupy the same space at
the same time
A quantum number is an address of the electron

Electrons exist in orbitals around the


nucleus

Thank You

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