Solutions

Solutions

Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or
more pure substances.
In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.
The intermolecular forces
between solute and solvent
particles must be strong enough
to compete with those between
solute particles and those
between solvent particles. Solutions

How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute
particles apart and surrounds, or solvates, them.
If an ionic salt is soluble in water, it is because the
ion-dipole interactions are strong enough to
overcome the lattice energy of the salt crystal.

Side note - Just because a substance disappears when it comes in contact with a solvent, it doesnt
mean the substance dissolved.
Dissolution is a physical changeyou can get back the original solute by evaporating the solvent. Solutions
If you cant, the substance didnt dissolve, it reacted.

Energy Changes in Solution

Three processes affect the
energetics of the process:
Separation of solute particles
Separation of solvent particles
New interactions between solute
and solvent

The enthalpy change of the

overall process depends on
H for each of these steps.
Solutions

Why Do Endothermic
Processes Occur?
Things do not tend to occur
spontaneously (i.e., without
outside intervention) unless the
energy of the system is
lowered.
Yet we know that in some
processes, like the dissolution
of NH4NO3 in water, heat is
absorbed, not released.
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Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture

The reason is that increasing the
disorder or randomness (known as
entropy) of a system tends to
lower the energy of the system.
So even though enthalpy may
increase, the overall energy of the
system can still decrease if the
system becomes more disordered.
Solutions

Types of Solutions
Saturated
Solvent holds as much solute
as is possible at that
temperature.
Dissolved solute is in dynamic
equilibrium with solid solute
particles.

Unsaturated
Less than the maximum
amount of solute for that
temperature is dissolved in the
solvent.
Solutions

Types of Solutions

Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally possible at
that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a seed crystal or Solutions
scratching the side of the flask.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Chemists use the axiom

like dissolves like:

Polar substances tend to

dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances tend to
dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

The more similar the

intermolecular attractions,
the more likely one
substance is to be soluble
in another.
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Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding) is
very soluble in water,
while cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not.
Vitamin A is soluble in
nonpolar compounds
(like fats).
Vitamin C is soluble in
Solutions
water.

Gases in Solution
In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.

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Gases in Solution Henrys Law

The solubility of liquids and solids
does not change appreciably with
pressure.
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to its pressure.
Sg = kPg
where
Sg is the solubility of the gas;
k is the Henrys law constant for that
gas in that solvent;
Pg is the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid.
Solutions

Latihan
Tekanan parsial gas CO2 didalam botol cola
adalah 4 atm pada 25oC. Berapa kelarutan
CO2? Konstanta Henry CO2 terlarut dalam air =
3,3 x 10-2 mol/L atm pada 25oC
Berapa kelarutan N2 di air pada 25oC dan 1
atm jika udara mengandung 78% N2 (volume)?
kH N2 dalam air pada 25oC adalah 7 x 10-4
mol/L atm
Solutions

Temperature
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

Solutions

Temperature
The opposite is true
of gases:
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
bubbly if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.
Solutions

Ways of
Expressing
Concentrations
of Solutions
Solutions

Satuan-satuan Konsentrasi
Konsentrasi suatu larutan adalah banyaknya zat
terlarut dalam sejumlah tertentu pelarut atau larutan.
Persen berdasar Massa
massa zat terlarut
% massa =
massa zat terlarut + massa pelarut

x 100%

massa zat terlarut

x 100%
=
massa larutan

Fraksi Mol (X)

mol zat A
XA =
jumlah mol seluruh komponen

Solutions

13.3

Satuan-satuan Konsentrasi
Molaritas (M)
M =

mol zat terlarut

liter larutan

Molalitas (m)
m =

mol zat terlarut

massa pelarut (kg)
Solutions

12.3

Menghitung Molalitas
Soal: Hitunglah molalitas suatu larutan yang dibuat dengan cara
melarutkan 75,0 g Ba(NO3)2 (s) ke dalam 374,00 g air pada 250C.
Solusi: massa molar Ba(NO3)2 = 261,32 g/mol
75,0 g Ba(NO3)2 x

molalitas =

1 mol
261,32 g

0,28700 mol
0,37400 kg

= 0,28700 mol

= 0,76739 m = 0,767 m

Solutions

Mengkonversi satuan-satuan konsentrasi

Soal: konsentrasi asam klorida komersial adalah 11,8 M
dan memiliki kerapatan 1,190 g/ml. Hitunglah
(a) % massa HCl,
(b) molalitas and (c) fraksi mol dari HCl.

Hitunglah molaritas dari 1,74 m larutan sukrosa

(C12H22O11) yang kerapatannya 1,12 g/mL.

Solutions

Berapakah molalitas dari 5,86 M larutan etanol

(C2H5OH) yang kerapatannya 0,927 g/mL?
m =

mol zat terlarut

massa pelarut(kg)

M =

mol zat terlarut

liter larutan

Misalkan 1 L larutan:
5,86 mol etanol = 270 g etanol
927 g larutan (1000 mL x 0,927 g/mL)
massa pelarut = massa larutan massa zat terlarut
= 927 g 270 g = 657 g = 0,657 kg
m =

mol zat terlarut

massa pelarut (kg)

5,86 mol C2H5OH

0,657 kg pelarut

= 8,92 m
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13.3

Mass Percentage

mass of A in solution
100
Mass % of A =
total mass of solution

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Parts per Million and

Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
mass of A in solution
106
ppm =
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
109
ppb =
total mass of solution
Solutions

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
total moles in solution
In some applications, one needs the
mole fraction of solvent, not solute
make sure you find the quantity you
need!
Solutions

Molarity (M)
M=

mol of solute
L of solution

Because volume is temperature

dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.

Solutions

Molality (m)
m=

mol of solute
kg of solvent

Because both moles and mass do not

change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.
Solutions

Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.

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Convert mass % to ..
5% HC2H3O2 5 g x 1mol/60g =
0.0833 mol
95% H2O 95 g x 1mol/18g =
5.28 mol

Solutions

Mole fraction
X = 0.0833mol / (0.0833 mol + 5.28 mol)
MOLALITY
m = 0.0833 mol / 0.095 kg

Solutions

Convert M to m
1.13

mol to
L solution

mol
kg solvent

1000 mL x 1.05 g/ml = 1050 g solution

1.13 mole KOH x 56.1 g/mol = 63.4 g
solute
Solutions

 1050 g solution

63.4 g KOH
986.6 g solvent
m = 1.13 mol KOH = 1.15 mol
0.9866 kg
kg

Solutions

What about mass percent?

g solute
Mass%
*100%
g solution
63.4 gKOH
Mass%
*100%
1050 gH 2O

63.4 g KOH

1050 g
solution
Solutions

Dimensional Analysis
What is the molarity of concentrated HCl?
39.0% HCl by mass and 1.13 g/mL density
39.0 g HCl 1Mole 1.13 g 1000mL
*
*
*
12.1M
100 g so ln 36.5 g 1mL
1L

Solutions

 What is the molarity

of a 1.11 ppm
solution of Zn2+
ions?
1.11mg Zn 2
1g
1 mole Zn
*
*
1.70 X 10 5 M
1 liter
1000mg 65.39 g

Solutions

 Chemical analysis showed 1.23 mg

Fe in a 15.67 g sample of soil.
What is the Fe concentration in ppm?

1.23mg Fe
1g
*
*10 6 78.5 ppm
15.67 g sample 1000mg

Solutions

Soal Latihan
Berapa molalitas larutan yang dibuat dengan melarutkan 32 g
CaCl2 dalam 271 g air?
Berapa gram glukosa (C6H12O6) yang harus dilarutkan dalam
563 g etanol (C2H5OH) untuk membuat larutan dengan
konsentrasi 2,40 x 10-2 m?
Hitung ppm (massa) kalsium dalam 3,50 g pil yang mengandung
40,5 mg Ca!
Hidrogen peroksida adalah zat pengoksidasi yang berguna
dalam pemutih, bahan bakar roket dll. Larutan encer H2O2 30%
(m/m) memiliki densitas 1,11 g/mL hitung (a) molalitas (b) fraksi
mol H2O2 (c) molaritas
Solutions

Colligative Properties
Changes in colligative properties
depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity of
the solute particles.
Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure

Solutions

Vapor Pressure
Because of solute-solvent
intermolecular attraction,
higher concentrations of
nonvolatile solutes make it
harder for solvent to escape
to the vapor phase.
Therefore, the vapor
pressure of a solution is
lower than that of the pure
solvent.
Solutions

Solutions

Raoults Law
PA = XAPA
where
XA is the mole fraction of compound A
PA is the normal vapor pressure of A at
that temperature

NOTE: This is one of those times when

you want to make sure you have the mole
fraction of the solvent.
Solutions

1.0 mol of a nonelectrolyte, such as glucose, produces essentially

the same reduction in vapor pressure in a given quantity of water
as does 0.5 mol of NaCl, a strong electrolyte.
Both solutions have 1.0 mol of particles because 0.5 mol of NaCl
dissociates to give 0.5 mol of Na+(aq) and 0.5 mol of Cl-(aq).

Raoult's Law: Quantitatively, the vapor pressure of solutions

containing nonvolatile solutes is given by

PA X P

0
A A

P Partial pressure, X mole fraction,

Solutions

Examples
The vapor pressure of water is 17.5 torr at 20C. Imagine holding the
temperature constant while adding glucose, C6H12O6, to the water so
that the resulting solution has XH2O = 0.80 and XGlu = 0.20. What is ,
the vapor pressure of water over the solution

PA X P

0
A A

PA X P 0.80 X 17.5torr
0
A A

= 14 torr
Solutions

Examples
Glycerin, C3H8O3, is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with a density
of 1.26 g/mL at 25C. Calculate the vapor pressure at 25C of a
solution made by adding 50.0 mL of glycerin to 500.0 mL of
water. The vapor pressure of pure water at 25C is 23.8 torr

Solutions

Examples
The vapor pressure of pure water at 110C is 1070 torr. A solution of
ethylene glycol and water has a vapor pressure of 1.00 atm at 110C.
Assuming that Raoult's law is obeyed, what is the mole fraction of
ethylene glycol in the solution? Answer: 0.290
PH2O =1070 torr
PH2O = 1 Atm = 760 torr
XH2O

P
= --------P
H2O

H2O

760 torr
1070 torr

0.71028

XH2O + XEG = 1
0.7103 + XEG = 1
1- 0.7103 = XEG
XEG =

0.28972

= 0.290

Solutions

Many solutions do not obey Raoult's law exactly:

They are not ideal solutions.
If the intermolecular forces between solvent and solute are
weaker than those between solvent and solvent and
between solute and solute, then the solvent vapor pressure
tends to be greater than predicted by Raoult's law.
Conversely, when the interactions between solute and
solvent are exceptionally strong, as might be the case
when hydrogen bonding exists, the solvent vapor pressure
is lower than Raoult's law predicts.
Although you should be aware that these departures from
ideal solution occur, we will ignore them for the remainder
Solutions
of this chapter.

Sucrose is a nonvolatile, nonionizing solute in water. Determine

the vapor pressure lowering, at 27C, of a solution of 75.0 grams
of sucrose, C12H22O11, dissolved in 180. g of water. The vapor
pressure of pure water at 27C is 26.7 torr. Assume the solution
is ideal.

1 mol Suc
n Suc 75.0 gSuc
0.219mol
342.3 g Suc
1 mol Water
nWater 180 gWater
9.99mol
18 g Watyer
n water
9.991
X Water

0.978541
nWater nUc 9.991 0.2191
0
PWater PWater
X Water 26.7 torr

X 0.97854 26.13

Vapor Pressure Lowered = 26.7-26.1= 0.6

Solutions

Solution is made by mixing 52.1 g of propyl chloride, C3HCl, and

38.4 g of propyl bromide, C3HBr. What is the vapor pressure of
propyl chloride in the solution at 25C? The vapor pressure of pure
propyl chloride is 347 torr at 25C and that of pure propyl bromide
is 133 torr at 25C. Assume that the solution is an ideal solution.

1 mol CP
nCP 52.1 g CP
0.6633
78.54 g CP
1 mol CB
nCB 38.4 g CB
0.312
122.99 g CB
n PCr
0.6633
X PC

0.67996
n PC n PB 0.6633 0.3122
0
PPC PPC
X PC 347 X 0.679964 235.95 236Torr
Solutions

Boiling Point Elevation and

Freezing Point Depression
Nonvolatile solutesolvent interactions
also cause solutions
to have higher boiling
points and lower
freezing points than
the pure solvent.

Solutions

Boiling Point Elevation

The change in boiling
point is proportional to
the molality of the
solution:
Tb = Kb m

Tb is added to the normal

boiling point of the solvent.

where Kb is the molal

boiling point elevation
constant, a property of
the solvent.
Solutions

Freezing Point Depression

The change in freezing
point can be found
similarly:
Tf = Kf m

Tf is subtracted from the normal

freezing point of the solvent.

Here Kf is the molal

freezing point
depression constant of
the solvent.
Solutions

Boiling Point Elevation and

Freezing Point Depression
Note that in both
equations, T does
not depend on what
the solute is, but
only on how many
particles are
dissolved.

Tb = Kb m
Tf = Kf m

Solutions

Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
Since colligative properties depend on the number of
particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes (which
dissociate in solution) should show greater changes
than those of nonelectrolytes.

Solutions

Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
However, a 1 M solution of NaCl does not show
twice the change in freezing point that a 1 M
solution of methanol does.

Solutions

vant Hoff Factor

One mole of NaCl in
water does not really
give rise to two
moles of ions.
Some Na+ and Cl
reassociate for a
short time, so the
true concentration of
particles is
somewhat less than
two times the
concentration of
Solutions
NaCl.

vant Hoff Factor

Reassociation is
more likely at higher
concentration.
Therefore, the
number of particles
present is
concentration
dependent.
Solutions

The vant Hoff Factor

We modify the
previous equations
by multiplying by the
vant Hoff factor, i

Tf = Kf m i

Solutions

EXAMPLE
Antifreeze is made at 25% C2H6O2 by mass.
What is the Tb and the Tf?
Assume 1000g (Why? Because molality is based upon kg of solvent)
Mass percent

250 g C2H6O2
750 g H2O

1mole 4.03mole
m 250 g

5.37 m
62.1g 0.750kg

Tb 100C (0.52C / m) (5.37 m) 102.8C

Tf 0C (1.86C / m) (5.37 m) 10C

Solutions

Ex. Molecular Weight of Unknown

What is the Mw of a sample if 250grams of the
sample is placed into 1000grams of water and the
temperature rose by 3.5C?

103.5C 100C (0.52C / m) (? m)

mole
6.73
?m
kg
Solutions

 Assuming 1000g (1kg), the molality

becomes..

mole
6.73
1kg 6.73mole
kg

250 g
6.73mole
? MM

MM 37 g / mole
Solutions

LATIHAN
Jika anda menambahkan 1 kg senyawa
antibeku etilen glikol (C2H6O2) kedalam
radiator mobil yang berisi 4450 g air.
Berapa titik didih dan titik beku air
radiator?

Solutions

Osmosis
Some substances form semipermeable membranes, allowing
some smaller particles to pass through, but blocking other
larger particles.
In biological systems, most semipermeable membranes allow
water to pass through, but solutes are not free to do so.
In osmosis, there is net
movement of solvent
from the area of higher
solvent concentration
(lower solute concentration)
to the are of lower solvent
concentration (higher solute
Solutions
concentration).

Osmotic Pressure
The pressure required to stop osmosis,
known as osmotic pressure, , is

=(

n
)
RT = MRT
V

where M is the molarity of the solution

If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides
of a membrane (i.e., the concentrations are the
same), the solutions are isotonic.

Solutions

Osmosis in Cells
If the solute concentration
outside the cell is greater
than that inside the cell, the
solution is hypertonic.
Water will flow out of the cell,
and crenation results.
If the solute concentration
outside the cell is less than
that inside the cell, the
solution is hypotonic.
Water will flow into the cell,
and hemolysis results.

Solutions

LATIHAN
Larutan 0,30 M sukrosa pada 37 oC
memiliki tekanan osmotik hampir sama
dengan tekanan darah, hitung tekanan
osmotik sukrosa tsb!

Solutions

Colloids:
Suspensions of particles larger than
individual ions or molecules, but too small to
be settled out by gravity.

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Tyndall Effect

Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of light.
This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.

Solutions

Colloids in Biological Systems

Some molecules have
a polar, hydrophilic
(water-loving) end and
a nonpolar,
hydrophobic (waterhating) end.

Solutions

Colloids in Biological Systems

Sodium stearate is one example of
such a molecule.
These molecules can aid in the
emulsification of fats and oils in
aqueous solutions.

Solutions