Fundamentals Fluid Dynamics

Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics
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Course Intent
This Course covers the fundamental aspects of
fluid flow, various terms associated with fluid
flow and relevant equations that is to be used
for calculations under various circumstances.
This
course
material
would
help
the
reader/audience to improve upon his/her
fundamentals and would serve as a launching
pad for advanced fluid flow studies.
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Contents
Introduction.
Fluid flow phenomena.
Basic Equations of Fluid Flow.
Flow of incompressible fluids.
Flow of compressible fluids.
Flow past immersed bodies.
Transportation and metering of fluids.
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Study of fluids
Continuum Mechanics is a branch of Physics

which deals with the study of Solids and
fluids.
The fact that matter is made of atoms and

that it commonly has some sort of
heterogeneous microstructure is ignored in
the simplifying approximation that physical
quantities, such as energy and momentum,
can be handled in the infinitesimal limit .
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Divisions of Continuum Mechanics
Continuum Mechanics
Solid Mechanics
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Fluid Mechanics
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Divisions of Continuum Mechanics

Solid Mechanics :
Is also known as the Theory of Elasticity or
Strength of Materials. Solid mechanics is the
study of the physics of continuous solids with
a defined rest shape.
Fluid Mechanics:
Deals with the physics of fluids.
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Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics has two branches important
to the study of unit operations.
Fluid statics Treats fluids to be in equilibrium

state of no shear stress.
Fluid dynamics Treats fluids when portions

of the fluid are in motion in relative to other
parts
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Fluid Flow Phenomena

Within the current of an incompressible fluid under the
influence of solid boundaries, four important effects
appear,
Coupling of velocity gradient and shear stress fields.
Onset of turbulence.
The formation and growth of boundary layers.
Separation of boundary layers from contact with the solid

boundary.
Flow of compressible fluids past solid boundaries
additional effects appear, arising from the significant
density changes.
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Boundary layer and Potential Flow

A Boundary layer is defined as that part of a moving
fluid in which the fluid motion is influenced by the
presence of a solid boundary.
A flow of an ideal fluid (one which is incompressible
and has zero viscosity) is known as potential flow.
Potential flow characteristics:
1.
No eddy formation (Irrotational Flow)
2.
No Friction (No dissipation of mechanical energy to

heat)
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Velocity Gradient and Rate of shear
Distance from wall, y.
Velocity gradient is the change in velocity of

fluid layers with the distance from the solid
boundary.
Fs
yc
Plane C
-Fs
yb
Plane B
ya
Plane A
Local fluid velocity, u
du/dy
Shear Force acting per unit area of shearing

plane is called shear stress ( = Fs/As)
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Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids

Bingham Plastic
Shear stress,
Pseudoplastic
Newtonian
Dilatant
Newtonian Most
Gases and
Liquids
Bingham
Plastic
Sewage
sludge
Pseudo
plastic
Rubber
Latex
Dilatant
Quick sand
and some
sand
emulsions
Velocity Gradient du/dy
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Viscosity
For Newtonian Fluids,
= du/dy
For Non Newtonian fluids,
= o + K du/dy (Bingham plastic)

= K(du/dy)^n
(Power law fluids: for pseudo plastics n<1 and dilatants n>1)
= shear Stress
= Viscosity
du/dy = Velocity Gradient
Momentum flux normal to the direction of flow is proportional to
the velocity gradient with viscosity as the proportionality factor.
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Viscosity of Gases
Gases:
/ o = (T/273)^n
Viscosity
of
Temperature.
Viscosity of Gases has less impact at low

pressures.
At high pressures (near critical point) gas

viscosity increases with pressure.
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Gases
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increases
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Viscosity of Liquids
Viscosity of liquid decreases with increasing

temperature.
Viscosity of Liquid increases with pressure but

is generally insignificant at pressures less
than 40 atm.
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Reynolds Number
Re
= V D/
D = diameter of the Tube,

V = average velocity of the liquid
= Viscosity of the liquid
= Density of the liquid
Nre < 2100 -> Laminar Flow
Nre > 4000 -> Turbulent flow
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Turbulence
Wall Turbulence:
Occurs when the fluid flows through open or closed channels
or past solid shapes immersed in the stream.
Free turbulence:
Occurs in the flow of jet into a mass of stagnant fluid or when
a boundary layer separates from a solid wall and flows
through bulk of the fluid.
Mechanical energy is not appreciably dissipated into heat
during the break up of large eddies into smaller and smaller
ones, but such energy is not available for maintaining
pressure or overcoming resistance to flow and is worthless for
practical purposes.
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Boundary layer formation in straight tubes
Development of boundary Layer in pipe
Transition length: length at which the flow is fully

developed.
Xt/D = 0.05 Nre
Xt = Transition Length
D = Diameter
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Boundary Layer Thickness
Boundary Layer formation in flat plate

Turbulent flow in
boundary layer
Laminar Flow in
Boundary Layer
Buffer
layer
Viscous Sub
layer
Distance From Leading edge
Onset of
Turbulence
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Boundary Layer Separation

Direction of Flow
Uniform
Velocity
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Eddies
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Boundary Layer Separation
Occurs whenever there is a change in velocity

of the fluid, either in magnitude or direction, is
too large to the fluid to adhere to solid
surface.
Avoid sharp changes in fluid flow.
Streamline objects to prevent boundary layer

separation.
For some cases, such as the promotion of heat

transfer or mixing in a fluid, boundary layer
separation may be desirable.
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Basic Equations of Flow

Principles most useful in fluid dynamics:
Mass Balance or Continuity equations
Linear and angular momentum balance
Mechanical energy Balance
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Mass Balance
The rate of mass entering the flow system
equals that leaving.
Equation of Continuity
m = a Ua Sa = b Ub Sb
m = mass per unit time
a,b = Density of the fluid at points a, b
Ua,b = Velocity of the fluid at points a,b
Sa,b = Surface Area normal to the velocity of flow
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Macroscopic Momentum Balance

F = (Mb Ma)
Sum of all forces acting in the direction of flow
equals to the difference in the momentum
leaving the fluid per unit time and that
brought in per unit time by the fluid.
Ma
Mb
X Direction
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Macroscopic Momentum Balance

F = m( b Vb a Va)
Force components acting on a fluid in the direction of Flow,
Pressure Change in the direction of flow
Shear Stress at the boundary between the fluid stream and

the conduit
If the stream is inclined, the appropriate component of the

force of gravity.
F = PaSa PbSb +Fw-Fg

Pa,Pb
- Inlet and outlet Pressures
Sa,Sb
- Inlet and Outlet Cross Section
Fw
- Net force of wall of channel on the fluid
Fg
- Component of force of Gravity
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Energy Balance equation in Flow

The Bernoulli Equation without Friction
Pa/ + gZa+Va^2/2 = Pb/ + gZb + V^2b/2
The Bernoulli Equation with Friction
Pa/ + gZa+Va^2/2 = Pb/ + gZb + V^2b/2+hf
The Bernoulli Equation with pump work
Pa/ + gZa+ Va^2/2+W = Pb/ + gZb +
V^2b/2+hf
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Flow of Incompressible Fluids

Shear Stress Distribution in a Cylindrical Tube:
(Steady flow of a viscous fluid at constant density in a horizontal tube)
Pipe Wall
rw
Pipe Wall
dP/dL + 2/r = 0
/r = /r
w
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Relation between skin friction and wall shear:
From Bernoullis Equation,
P/ = hfs
hfs = 2 w/rw/ L = 4 w L//D
Skin Friction: Friction Generated by un separated boundary Layers
Form Friction: Friction due to boundary layer separation
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Friction Factor (f) :
Is the ratio of wall shear stress to product of the density and
the velocity head.
f = 2w/V^2
Relation between skin friction parameters:
hfs = 2w/rw/ L = Ps/ = 4f L/DV^2/2

P/L =2* f * V^2/D
f = Fanning Friction factor
4*f = Blasius or Darcy's Friction Factor
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Laminar Flow in Pipes - Newtonian

Velocity profile in laminar flow:
u/u
max
= 1 (r/rw)^2
V = 0.5 * u
max
V = Average Velocity
U = local velocity
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

Momentum Correction Factor = 4/3
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Laminar Flow in Pipes - Newtonian

Hagen Poiseulle Equation:
Ps = 32 L V /D^2
Used in measuring viscosity
Friction Factor (f):

f = 16/Nre
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Laminar Flow in Pipes Non Newtonian

Velocity Profile & shear diagram for non Newtonian flow(Bingham):
Flow
rc
Plug Flow
Velocity Profile
Flow
rc
Plug Flow
o
Shear Stress
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Laminar Flow in Pipes Non Newtonian

Velocity Profile:
u = ( w/rw/K)^(1/n)*[rw^(1+1/n) r^(1+1/n)]/(1+1/n)
Pressure Difference:
P/L = 2K*((3n+1)/n)^n*V^n/ r^(n+1)
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Turbulent Flow in Pipes - Newtonian

Velocity Profile:
V/ u
max
= 1/ (1+3.75*Sqrt(f/2))
Friction Factor for smooth tubes:

f = 0.0014 +0.125(Nre)^0.32
For 3000<Nre<3000000
Kinetic energy and Momentum correction factors:
= 1+1.78f(15-15.9sqrt(f))
= 1+3.91f
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Effect of Heat transfer on f
Calculate Reynolds number for arithmetic average of inlet

and outlet temperatures.
f = f/
^n
For Nre < 2100,
n = 0.17 for heating
n = 0.11 for cooling
For Nre > 2100
n = 0.38 for heating
n = 0.23 for cooling
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Friction factor for non circular channel
Same formulas/equations
circular pipes can be used.
as
available
for
Use Equivalent Diameter in places where

diameter is used for circular tubes.
Equivalent Diameter = 4*rh
rh = Hydraulic radius = S/Lp
S = cross sectional area

Lp = perimeter of channel in contact with fluid.
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Friction due to changes in velocity or

direction
Friction in addition to skin friction is generated

when changes in velocity or direction is
encountered.
In most situations these effects cannot be

calculated precisely and is necessary to rely on
empirical data.
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Friction due to changes in velocity or direction

Frictional loss due to sudden expansion:
hfe = Ke * Va^2/2
Ke= Expansion loss coefficient
Ke = (1- Sa/Sb)^2
Sa,Sb =cross sectional area
& corrections are to be made if the flow is
laminar in larger pipe and turbulent in smaller.
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Frictional loss due to sudden contraction:
hfc = Kc Vb^2/2
Kc = contraction loss coefficient
For laminar flow,
Kc < 0.1
For turbulent flow,
Kc = 0.4(1-Sb/Sa)
Sa,Sb = cross sectional Area
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Effect Of Fittings and Valves:
hff = Kf(Va^2/2)
Kf = Loss factor for fitting.
Kf are experimental values.
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Fitting
Kf
Globe
Valve,
wide open
10.0
Angle Valve, Wide

open
5.0
Gate Valve Wide

Open
0.2
Gate Valve Half

Open
5.6
Return Bend
2.2
Elbow 90
0.9
Elbow 45
0.4
Loss Coefficients
Tee
for standard threaded pipe fittings
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1.8
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Compressible Fluid Flow

Mach Number,
Nma = u/a
u = Velocity of the fluid.
a = Velocity of sound in the fluid.
Nma = 1
Sonic Flow
Nma < 1
Sub Sonic Flow
Nma > 1
Super Sonic flow
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Basic Equations of Flow Compressible Fluids
The Continuity Equation
The Steady flow total energy balance
The mechanical energy balance with friction
Equation for Velocity of sound
Equation of state for ideal gas
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Basic Equations of Flow Compressible Fluids

Continuity Equation
ln + ln S + ln u = Constant
Total Energy Balance
dQ/m = dH + d(u^2/2)
Mechanical energy Balance
dP/ + d(u^2/2) + u^2/2*f *dL/rH =
Velocity of Sound
a = Sqrt (dp/d s
Equation of State
PV = nRT
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Acoustical Velocity and Mach number

Ideal Gas
a = SQRT ( TR/M)
a = velocity of sound in the gas
T = Temperature
M = Molecular Weight
= Cp/Cv
R = Universal Gas Constant
Nma = u / sqrt (TR/M)
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Process of Compressible Flow
Isentropic Expansion
Adiabatic Frictional Flow
Isothermal Frictional Flow
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Isentropic Expansion
Divergent Section
Reservoir
Receiver
Pr
P0
Convergent
Section
Adiabatic flow
Cross sectional Area must change
Stagnation temperature is constant.
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Flow through Variable Area Conduits

1
Venturi
Pt/Po
P*/Po
Wind
Tunnel
P/Po
Sonic
Shock
Waves
Super
Sonic
L
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Flow in convergent section is subsonic and

may attain sonic velocities at the throat
For Sub Sonic regions, the convergent section

increases the velocity and decreases the
pressure.
For Sub sonic regions, the divergent section

reduces velocity and regains pressure.
For super sonic regions, the divergent section

increases velocity greater than the speed of
sound.
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The flow rate through a nozzle reaches

maximum when the pressure ratio is reduced
to critical pressure ratio.
When the velocity in the throat is sonic and

the cross section is constant, sound waves
cannot move upstream into the throat and the
gas in the throat has no way of receiving the
message from downstream.
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Mass flow through a nozzle

Constant flow rate
Mass Flow Rate
Maximum flow rate
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Pressure Ratio Pr/Po
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Equations for Isentropic Flow (Ideal Gas)

Velocity in the Nozzle:
u2 = 2 Po/( 1)/ o[ 1- (P/Po)(1- 1/ )]
Or
P/Po = 1/ {1+( 1)/2] N2ma}
1- 1/
Critical Pressure Ratio:

P*/Po = (2/( + 1))(1/(1-))
Critical Pressure is the pressure of the fluid at Nma = 1
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Equations for Isentropic Flow (Ideal Gas)

Mass Velocity
G = sqrt((2Po o/( 1)))(P/Po)1/ sqrt(1-(P/Po)1 1/ )
Effect of Cross sectional Area:

du/u (N2ma 1) = dS/S
For sub sonic flows Decreasing conduit area increases
velocity.
For Supersonic flows increasing conduit area increases
velocity.
Reason: For Nma<1 Velocity increase is faster than
density decrease.
For Nma>1 velocity increase is overcome by faster
density decrease.
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Adiabatic Frictional Flow

Isentropic
Section
Reservoir
Receiver
Adiabatic Frictional Section
Typical situation: Gas flow through long pipelines
When outlet pressures are too low, gas velocities may

reach sonic Velocities.
When Fluid enters the pipeline at Nma>1, Fluid reaches

Sonic velocity inside the pipe by reducing the mass
flow. This is known as choking.
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Equations for Adiabatic frictional flow

Frictional Factor
fL/rH = 1/ ( 1/N2ma,a 1/N2ma,b ( + 1)/2*ln((N2ma,b{1+
[( 1)/2]N2ma,a})/((N2ma,a{1+[( 1)/2]N2ma,b})))
f = frictional factor
rH = Hydraulic Radius
Maximum Conduit Length:
fLmax/rH = 1/ (1/N2ma,a 1 ( + 1)/2 *ln (2{1 + [(
1)/2 ]N2ma,a})/(N2ma,a( - 1))
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Isothermal Frictional Flow

Isothermal Frictional Section
Reservoir
Isentropic
section
Receiver
Heating
Jacket
Typical cases: Long, small uninsulated pipes.

The process is non adiabatic and non isentropic.
Temperature is constant.
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Equation for Isothermal Frictional flow

Mechanical Energy Balance:
M/2RT ( P2a P2b) G2 ln (Pa/Pb) = G2fDL/2rH
G = Mass Velocity
F = Frictional Factor
rH = hydraulic radius
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Flow past immersed bodies

Drag:
The Force in the direction of flow exerted by
the fluid on the solid is called Drag.
Form Drag:
Total Integrated drag due to pressure.
Wall Drag:
Total integrated drag due to wall shear.
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Wall and Form Drag in an immersed body

PcosdA
w dA
(form drag)
Direction of Flow
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w sin dA
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Drag Coefficient (Cd)

Cd = (Fd/Ap)/(u2/2)
Cd is analogous to f for flow through conduits.
For a given shape, Cd = (Nre)
Nre = Reynolds Number
Fd = Total Drag
Ap = projected area of the immersed surface to
direction of flow.
the
= Density of the fluid

u = velocity of the fluid
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Typical flow past single sphere
85o
Laminar flow in Boundary Layer
140o
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Turbulent flow in Boundary Layer

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Drag Coefficients for a sphere

For Nre < 1
Solid moves through the fluid by deforming it.
Wall shear is a result of viscous forces only. (No inertial forces

present).
Flow in this region is called creeping flow.
Flow is characterized by stokes law ( Cd = 24/Nre).
For Nre>10
Boundary layer separation occurs just before the equatorial

plane.
Wakes are formed and it fills the complete rear hemisphere.
The total drag is much greater than if stokes law is still

applied.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Drag Coefficients for a Sphere

For 100 < Nre < 100000
Vortices disengage from the wake in a regular fashion,

forming in the downstream a stream of moving vortices
known as Vortex street. The boundary layer grows
and separates, flowing freely around the wake after
separation.
The boundary layer remains laminar before and after

separation.
Cd = constant (~0.45) in this range.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Drag Coefficients for a Sphere

For Nre > 300000
Turbulence in boundary layer attached to the

solid occurs
Wake sizes shrink.
Cd reduces (from ~0.45 to 0.1)
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Drag Coefficients of Typical shapes

Long Cylinder :
Similar to sphere, but at low Nre, Cd does not
inversesly vary with Nre.
Short cylinders:
Values fall in between spheres and long
cylinders and varies inversely with Nre at low
Nre values.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Disks:
Do not show drop in Cd values at critical

Reynolds number.
Once the separation occurs at the edge of the

disk,separated stream does not return to the
back of the disk and the wake does not shrink
when the boundary layers become turbulent.
They are also known as bluff bodies.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Irregular shapes (Sand,coal etc)
Are normally same as that of spheres of same

nominal size at Reynolds number less than 50.
Cd becomes constant @ Nre ~ 100
Cd is two to three times more than spheres in

the range 500 < Nre <3000
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Friction in Flow through Beds of solids

Resistance to the flow of a fluid through the voids in a
bed of solids is the resultant of the total drag of all the
particles in the bed.
P/L = 150V(1-)2/( 2sD2p 3) + 1.75v2(1-)/( sDp)
Kozeny Carman equation (for Laminar

flow through beds of Solid)
Burke Plummer Equation (for Turbulent

flow through beds)
V= Velocity
Viscosity
Voidage
s = Sphericity
Dp = Diameter of Particle
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Sphericity of miscellaneous material
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Material
Sphericity
Spheres, Short
cylinders, cubes
Raschig Rings
0.33 0.58
Berl Saddle
0.3
Ottawa sand
0.95
Rounded Sand
0.83
Coal Dust
0.73
Flint Sand
0.65
Crushed Glass
0.65
Mica flakes
0.28
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One Dimensional Particle Motion

Terminal Velocity = Velocity of the particle when
all the forces acting on the particle balances
each other.
Fd
Fb
External Force (Fe)
Buoyant force (Fb)
Drag Force (Fd)
Direction of Flow
Forces Acting on a particle:
Fe
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Terminal Velocity (Ut)
Ut = Sqrt(2g( p-)m/(Ap pCd))
p Density of the particle
Density of the fluid
Cd Coefficient of Drag
Ap surface Area of the Particle
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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For Nre < 1
Cd = 24/Nre (Stokes Law)
For 1000<Nre<200000
Cd = 0.44 (Newtons Range)
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Fluidization
The terms Fluidization and Fluidized Bed

are used to describe the condition of fully
suspended particles.
The fluidized solids can be drained from the be

drained from the bed through pipes and valves
just like a liquid, and this fluidity is one of the
main advantages in the use of fluidization for
handling solids
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Pressure Drop and Bed height vs superficial velocity
Fluidised Bed
Pressure Drop and Bed Height
Fixed Bed
DP
Superficial velocity
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Pressure drop across a fluidized bed

P/L = 150V(1-)2/( 2sD2p 3) + 1.75v2(1-)/( sDp)
=
g( p - )
For a fluidized bed, the pressure drop across

the bed equal to the weight of the bed per unit
cross section, allowing for the buoyant force of
the displaced fluid.
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Transportation and Metering of Fluids
Typical Selection criteria for pipes:

Fluid
Type of Flow
Velocity range
ft/s
m/s
0.5 - 1
0.15 0.3
1-3
0.3 0.9
4 - 10
1.2 - 3
4-8
1.2 2.4
0.2 0.5
0.06 0.15
0.5 - 2
0.15 0.6
Steam
30 - 50
9 15
Air or Gas
30 -100
9 30
Thin Liquid
Gravity Flow
Pump Inlet
Pump
discharge
Process Line
Viscous Liquid
Pump Inlet
Pump
discharge
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Pumps
Wp
PUMP
Z
b
Reservoir
Work done by the Pump (Bernoulli Equation)

Wp = (Pb/
gZb + b V2b/2) - (Pa/
gZa + a V2a/2)
Pump Power Requirement: m*H/
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Suction Lift and Cavitation

Suction pressure must be greater than the Vapor pressure
of the liquid. If this criteria is not met the liquid flashes
in the pump giving rise to a situation called Cavitation.
NPSH = (Pa Pv)/g hfs/g Za
NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head.
Pa = Absolute pressure at the surface of the reservoir.
Pv = Vapor Pressure.
hfs = friction in suction line.
Density of the fluid
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NPSH
NPSH(A) must be greater than NPSH( R ).
NPSH ( R ) depends on pump characteristics

and is vendor specified.
NPSH ( R ) increases with pump capacity,

impeller speed and discharge pressure and
values upto 15 m are recommended for large
values.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Pump Classification
Positive displacement pumps

Reciprocating Pumps
Rotary pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
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Reciprocating Pumps
Piston Pumps:
Liquid is drawn through an inlet check valve

into the cylinder by the withdrawal of the
piston and is then forced out through a
discharge check valve on return stroke.
Maximum discharge pressure for commercial

piston pumps is about 50 atm.
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Reciprocating Pumps
Plunger Pumps:
A
heavy walled cylinder of small diameter

contains a close fitting reciprocating plunger,
which is merely an extension of piston rod. At
the limit of its stroke the plunger nearly fills
all the space in the cylinder.
Plunger pumps are single acting and are usually

motor driven. They can discharge against a
pressure if 1500atm or more.
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Reciprocating Pumps
Diaphragm pumps:
The reciprocating member is a flexible
diaphragm of metal, plastic, or rubber. This
eliminates the need for packing or seals
exposed to liquid being pumped, a great
advantage while handling toxic or corrosive
liquids.
These pumps handle a small quantity of fluid
(~100 gal/min), and can develop pressures in
excess of 100 atm.
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Reciprocating Pumps
Mechanical efficiency of reciprocating pumps

varies from 40 to 50 percent for small pumps
to 70 to 90% for large ones.
Efficiencies are nearly independent of speed

within normal operating limits and decreases
slightly with increase in discharge pressure
because of added friction and leakage.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Centrifugal Pumps
Mechanical energy of the liquid s increased by

centrifugal action.
Centrifugal pumps are most commonly used

pumping machines in process industries.
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Centrifugal pumps
Affinity laws:
Capacity q varies with n
Head H varies with n2
Power P varies with n3
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Pump Characteristic Curves
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Theoretical head flow relation is a

straight line.
Actual head developed is considerably

less and drops drastically to zero as the
rate increases to certain value in any
given pump.
The
observed
deviation
between
theoretical and actual is due to,
Fluid Friction of liquid in the passages and
channels
Shock losses from sudden change in direction
of liquid leaving the impeller and joining the
stream of the liquid traveling circumferentially
around the casing.
Friction is highest at maximum flow rate;
shock loses are a minimum at rated operating
condition of the pump and become greater as
the flow rate is increased or decreased from
the rated value.
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Ideal
P
The deviation between

ideal and actual
performance is due to,
Fluid Friction
Shock losses
Disk friction and bearing losses
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100%
(ideal)
Deviation from ideality

is due to Friction and
circulatory flows.
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Fans
Large Fans are usually Centrifugal and works

in the same principle as centrifugal pumps.
Discharge heads are low ~130 to 1500 mm

H2O.
General efficiencies are ~ 70%.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Blowers
Positive displacement blowers:
Clearance between gears are a few thousands

of an inch.
Typical discharge pressures:

Single stage 0.4 to 1 atm(g)
Double stage 2 atm(g)
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Blowers
Centrifugal Blowers:
Have high operating speeds (3600 r/m)
Similar to centrifugal pumps except that

casing is narrower, diameters of casing and
discharge scroll are relatively larger than in
pump.
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are multistage units
Handle high
340000m3/h)
Discharge pressure upto ~ 20atm
Smaller capacity machines are capable of

delivering at pressures upto several hundred
atm.
Inter stage cooling

pressure units.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
volume
of
is
Reviewed by: SB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
gas
(upto
required
in
high
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Compressors
Axial flow machines handle larger volumes of

gas than centrifugal compressors (upto ~
1000000 m3/h)
Discharge pressures are low ~ 2 to 12 atm
Inter stage cooling is normally not required
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Blower and Compressor power

Adiabatic Compression:
Wpr = Pa/(-1) a[(pb/pa)(1-1/) - 1]
Polytropic Compression:
Replace with n in polytropic equation.
n = ln (Pb/Pa)/ln ( b/ a)
Isothermal Compression:
Wpr = R Ta/M ln (Pb/Pa)
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Venturi Meter
The pressure difference between the upstream

cone is used to measure the rate of flow
through the instrument.
V = Cv/sqrt(1 ) * Sqrt (2 (Pa Pb)/)
Db/Da
Cv = Venturi coefficient
For well Designed Venturis Cv ~ 0.98
Pressure recovery in venturi is ~ 90%
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Orifice Meter
Venturi meters are expensive, flow range is limited.
Orifice meter is a cheaper,flexible option available.

V = Co/sqrt(1 ) * Sqrt (2 (Pa Pb)/)
Db/Da
Co = Orifice coefficient
Typical value of Co = 0.61
Normal value = 0.6
Pressure recovery ~ 60%
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Flow of compressible fluids through

venturis and orifice
m = Cv Y Sb / (sqrt (1 4) * sqrt (2(Pa-Pb) a))
Y = (Pb/Pa)1/ {((1- 4)[1-(Pb/Pa)1 1/])/((-1)
(1-Pb/Pa)[1 4(Pa/Pb)2]}
Y Dimensionless Expansion Factor
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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V Element Meters
Flow is restricted by V shaped indentation in the side of

the pipe or by a metal wedge inserted in the pipe.
They are expensive devices, of high accuracies (+/0.5% of measured rate)
Can measure flow rates of fluids containing solid

particles, un dissolved gases or gases carrying drops of
condensate etc.
Pressure recovery is better than orifice meters
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Area Meters
In orifice, nozzle or venturi the variation of

flow rate through constant area generates a
variable pressure drop which is related to flow
rate.
In area meters pressure drop is maintained

constant for varying flow rates.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Rotameter
The most important Area Meter is the Rota

meter.
Volumetric Flow,
Q = Umax P/4 (D2t D2f)
Df = Float Diameter,
Dt = Tube diameter
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Target Meter
A sharp edged disk is set at right angles to the

direction of flow and the drag force exerted on
the disk by the fluid is measured.
Flow rate is proportional to square root of

drag force and to the fluid density.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Reviewed by: SB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Vortex shedding Meter
In a vortex shedding meter the target is a

bluff body.
Sensors close to the bluff body measures the

pressure fluctuations and hence the frequency
of vortex shedding from which volumetric flow
may be inferred.
Applicable to many types of fluids, including

high temperature gas and steam.
Minimum Reynolds number required for a

linear response, so flow rates of high viscous
liquids cannot be measured.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Magnetic Meters
The Flow Tube is lined with non conducting

material with two or more metal electrodes
mounted flush with the liner wall.
Electro magnetic coils surrounding the tubes

generates a uniform magnetic field.
By Faradays law of electro magnetic induction,

motion of a conducting fluid in a magnetic
field induces a voltage proportional to velocity
of moving fluid.
Cannot be used for hydrocarbons.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Reviewed by: SB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Ultrasonic Meters
Transit Time meters:
Used in clean services.
High frequency pressure wave is beamed at an

angle across the pipe.
The velocity of the wave is measured from the

time of transit.
When the wave is transmitted in the direction

of flow the velocity increases and vice versa.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Reviewed by: SB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Ultrasonic Meters
Doppler Shift Meters:
Depend on the reflections of pressure wave

from suspended particles or bubbles in stream
which are assumed to be moving at the
velocity of the stream.
The difference between the frequency of the

projected wave and that of reflected wave is
proportional to the fluid velocity.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Coriolis Meter
A object moving in a rotating system

experiences a coriolis force proportional to its
mass and forward velocity and to the angular
velocity of the system.
Highly accurate. Applications are limited to

difficult fluids or to situations where high
accuracies justifies higher cost.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
Reviewed by: SB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date:
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Insertion meters
Sensing element is small compared to the size

of the flow channel, is inserted into the flow
stream.
Measures local velocity.
Precautions must be taken , usually by

providing long calming sections upstream of
the meter, to ensure that velocity profile is
fully developed and not distorted.
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Reference Material
Unit Operation for Chemical Engineers Warren L.

McCabe, Julian C. Smith, Peter Harriot.
Chemical Engineering Process Piping Systems David J.

Deutsch.
Chemical Engineering Handbook - Perry
Prepared by: HB
Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Date: 16 Aug 2004
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Fundamentals Fluid Dynamics

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Fundamentals Fluid Dynamics

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Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics

Approved by: SSS

Approved by: SSS

Fluid flow phenomena.

Basic Equations of Fluid Flow.

Flow of incompressible fluids.

Flow of compressible fluids.

Flow past immersed bodies.

Transportation and metering of fluids.

Approved by: SSS

Continuum Mechanics is a branch of Physics

The fact that matter is made of atoms and

Approved by: SSS

Divisions of Continuum Mechanics

Approved by: SSS

Divisions of Continuum Mechanics

Approved by: SSS

Fluid statics Treats fluids to be in equilibrium

Fluid dynamics Treats fluids when portions

Approved by: SSS

Fluid Flow Phenomena

Coupling of velocity gradient and shear stress fields.

The formation and growth of boundary layers.

Separation of boundary layers from contact with the solid

Approved by: SSS

Boundary layer and Potential Flow

No eddy formation (Irrotational Flow)

No Friction (No dissipation of mechanical energy to

Approved by: SSS

Velocity Gradient and Rate of shear

Distance from wall, y.

Velocity gradient is the change in velocity of

Local fluid velocity, u

Shear Force acting per unit area of shearing

Approved by: SSS

Newtonian and Non Newtonian Fluids

Velocity Gradient du/dy

Approved by: SSS

= o + K du/dy (Bingham plastic)

Approved by: SSS

Viscosity of Gases has less impact at low

At high pressures (near critical point) gas

Approved by: SSS

Viscosity of liquid decreases with increasing

Viscosity of Liquid increases with pressure but

Approved by: SSS

D = diameter of the Tube,

Approved by: SSS

Approved by: SSS

Boundary layer formation in straight tubes

Development of boundary Layer in pipe

Transition length: length at which the flow is fully

Approved by: SSS

Boundary Layer Thickness

Boundary Layer formation in flat plate

Approved by: SSS

Boundary Layer Separation

Approved by: SSS

Boundary Layer Separation

Occurs whenever there is a change in velocity

Avoid sharp changes in fluid flow.

Streamline objects to prevent boundary layer

For some cases, such as the promotion of heat