Memory

What is memory?
Are there different kinds of memories?

Three critical distinctions about

memory

The three stages of memory - encoding,

storage and retrieval
Different memories for storing information short term and long term memory
Different kinds of memories to store different
kinds of information for example, one
system for facts and another for skills

Memory is the process by which people

encode, store and retrieve information.

Memory: The capacity to

retain information over
time.

Encoding: the conversion of incoming

information into a form that can be stored in
memory.
Storage: maintaining information in memory
over a period of time.
Retrieval: the process of searching for stored
information and bringing it to mind.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model of Memory
It states that we have
memories:

Sensory Memory, Short-Term

Memory,
and Long-Term Memory.

Sensory Memory refers to the initial,

momentary storage of information, lasting
only an instant.
It is recorded by the persons sensory
systems as a raw, non-meaningful stimulus

Short Term Memory holds information for

fifteen to twenty-five seconds.
Information is stored in terms of its meaning
rather than as a mere sensory stimulation.

Long Term Memory refers to information

stored on relatively permanent basis although
it may be difficult to retrieve.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model:
Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Long-Term
Memory

Suppose that you wanted to memorize the

phone number of a restaurant: 562-7837. In
terms of the model, your goal is to get this
information into long-term memory.
You look at a page of a phone book.
Scanning the page, you find the listing you
want. This is a sensory input to the system.
The first stop is sensory memory.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model:
Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Long-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

A copy is made in sensory memory of the visual

patterns, 562-7837.
Generally, just paying attention to something in
sensory memory moves it to short-term
memory.
However, with verbal information, there is an
extra step because short-term memory prefers
to take information in an auditory forma form
you can hear.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

This is called auditory/ phonological encoding,

the conversion of visual patterns to sounds. You
do this when you listen to the sounds of these
words on the screen. Mostly used for rehearsals.
It involves pattern recognition. Visual patterns
in sensory memory are compared to prototypes
in long-term memory.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Sounds corresponding to the visual patterns are

then located and copied into short-term
.
memory.
When you become aware of these sounds, you
know they are in short-term memory. The
process of auditory encoding has been
completed.
The link from LTM to STM illustrates the process
of retrieval, a key intermediate step in
memorization.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Long-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

You have a new sequence of sounds in shortterm memory: 562-7837. Your goal is to move
this sequence into long-term memory.
There are two strategies for moving information
from STM to LTM: (1) repetition; (2) elaboration.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Repetitio
n

When you repeat (rehearse) information, two

things happen:
1. You recirculate it in STM. Each time you do
this, you reset the clock and get another few
seconds before the information decays.
2. You increase the chances that the information
will be copied into LTM. But this is an unreliable
strategy.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Elaborati
on

Elaboration is much more effective. You retrieve

related information from LTM and combine it
with the information you are holding in STM.
For example, you can use the letters that
correspond to the digits on the phone dial and
make a word out of the digits:

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Elaborati
on

562-7837
LOBSTER
Visualization works best. Try to come up
with words that refer to objects you can
picture in your minds eye.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Elaborati
on

What you encode (enter into) long-term

memory is the word, lobster, and the
mental picture of a lobster. You also encode
the rule, Dial the digits that go with the
letters.

Atkinson-Shiffrin
Model:

DYNAMICS

Basic
Sequence
Sensor
y Input

Sensory
Memory

Short-Term
Memory

Attentio
n

Long-Term
Memory

Elaborati
on

It will help if you create a mental picture

that links the lobster to the restaurant;
maybe visualize a lobster going inside, like
a customer.
When it comes time to dial, the thought of
the restaurant triggers the image of the
lobster, which reminds you of your code
word, lobster, and the rule: Dial the
digits that go with the letters.
Use? KFC, McDonalds for example

These memories differ in

terms of 3 characteristics:
Capacity:

how many units of

information can be held at one time.
Duration

of Storage: how long the

information can be held.
Reason

for Forgetting: storage failure

versus retrieval failure.

Comparing the three

Long-Term
Memory

Short-Term
Memory
(working
memory)

Sensory
Memory

Capacity:

virtually
unlimited.

7 units, plus
or minus 2.

large;
contains most
details of
sensory input

Duration of
Storage:

up to a
lifetime.

less than 30
seconds
without
rehearsal.

visual: 1/10
second;
auditory: 2
seconds.

Reason for
forgetting:

retrieval
failure (e.g.,
interference).

storage failure storage failure

(e.g., decay,
(e.g., decay).
displacement).

Modules of Long Term

Memory

Measuring Memory

Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional

recollection of an event or of an item of
information.
Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention
in memory, as evidenced by the effect of
a previous experience or previously
encountered information on current
thoughts or actions.

Explicit Memory

Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce

from memory previously encountered
material.
Recognition: The ability to identify previously
encountered material.

Implicit Memory

Priming: A method for measuring implicit memory in

which a person reads or listens to information and is
later tested to see whether the information affects
performance on another type of task.
Relearning: A method for measuring retention that
compares the time required to relearn material with
the time used in the initial learning of the material.

How We Remember

Effective Encoding
Rehearsal
Mnemonics

Rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal: Rote repetition of

material in order to maintain its availability in
memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Association of new
information with already stored knowledge
and analysis of the new information to make
it memorable.

Flashbulb Memories

Where were you when you first heard:

That Princess Diana had been killed in a car

wreck?
About the 9/11 Attacks?
About Mohtarma Benazir Bhuttos
assassination?

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to recall previously

learned information
Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and
then becomes a gradual loss of recall

Basic Reasons for Forgetting

Encoding

Failure: information did not get into memory.

Storage Failure: information has disappeared from memory; it is no
longer in storage.
Retrieval Failure: information is stored in memory but it cannot be
located.
Two

major theories tied with the above three failures:

Decay Theory: information in memory eventually disappears if it is not
used. (Use it or lose it.)
Interference Theory: information stays in memory permanently even if
it is not used. Forgetting occurs because other things we have learned
somehow prevent us from finding the information we want.

And we also forget

Emotional Factors in forgetting

Rehearsal
Anxiety
Context
Repression
Medical Reasons
Amnesia
Retrograde; inability to retrieve information before trauma
Anterograde; inability to retrieve information after trauma
Other Amnesiae
Childhood we dont tend to remember things from the first two
or three years of life
Source attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a
dream is recalled as an actual event)

How to improve memory

Repetitive Study
Rehearsal/ active practice
Material ought to be personally meaningful
Mnemonics

associate with peg words--something already stored (one

sun, two shoe, three free, four more )
make up story
chunk--acronyms

Retrieval cues/ associations

Minimize interference: best before sleeping
Test

A Word Memorization
Experiment

In the following demonstration, look at the list

of words below for one minute. Memorize as
many words as you can in this amount of
time.

Nine

Swap

Cell

Ring

Lust

Plugs

Lamp

Apple

Table

Sway

Army

Bank

Fire

Hold

Worm

Clock

Horse

Color

Baby

Sword

Desk

Hold

Find

Bird

Rock

Now on a sheet of paper, write down as many

words from the list as you can.
You have two minutes for this

How many did you get correct?

Now try this

Observe the following list for a minute

Horse

Cat

Dog

Fish

Bird

Orange

Yellow

Blue

Green

Black

Table

Chair

Desk

Bookcase

Bed

Teacher

School

Student

Homework

Class

Apple

Banana

Kiwi

Grape

Mango

Because these items can be easily chunked

based on category, you can probably
remember far more of these words.

Quiz

Quiz in the next session.

Topics: Learning & Memory