Respiratory System

Living cells need energy for maintenance,

growth, defense, and replication
Energy conversion (from glucose to ATP)
happens in cellular respiration.
Pulmonary respiration supplies the
necessary oxygen for aerobic respiration
Our bodies complete respiratory exchange
in the lungs

Functions of the
Respiratory System
1. Moves air to and from the gasexchange surfaces
2. Provides defense against
pathogenic
invasion
3. Permits vocal communication
4. Helps control body fluid pH

 Bozeman Respiratory System

Respiratory Tract
Conducting Portion and Respiratory Portion
Conducting airways carry air to and from the
exchange surfaces on the lungs
These airways filter, warm and humidify air
This protects alveoli from debris,
pathogens
and environmental extremes
Respiratory Portion includes the smallest and most
delicate bronchioles and alveoli that are the site for
gas exchange

The Nose
Air enters the respiratory system via
the external nares (nostrils)
Coarse hairs guard the nasal cavity
from large airborne particles (sand,
dust, insects)

The Pharynx
Chamber shared by the digestive and
respiratory systems
Extends between the internal nares
and the entrance to the larynx and
esophagus

The Larynx
Incoming air leaves the pharynx, passes through
the glottis (slit like opening between the vocal
cords) which is surrounded and protected by the
larynx
Prevents food from going down trachea
Filters air, voice box
Vocal cords vibrate when air passes through the
glottis generating sound waves
At puberty, the larynx of a male enlarges more than
that of a female. Their vocal cords are thick and
longer with lower tones compared to a female.

The Trachea
windpipe
Tough, flexible tube
The cartilage bands of the trachea
support it and keep it from collapsing
(~20 of them)
C-shape of the cartilages face towards the
esophagus and do not continue around the
trachea

Tracheal Blockage
Foreign objects can become lodged in
larynx or trachea
Coughing can expel the object if the
airway isnt completely blocked.
If a person cannot breathe or speak,
immediate action must be taken
Heimlich Maneuver or abdominal thrust
This elevates the diaphragm forcefully and can
generate enough pressure to remove the
object.

Thyroid Gland
Regulates metabolism by secreting
Thyroxine
Maintains hormone levels
Common thyroid problems:
Hyperthyroidism- overproduction of thyroid
hormones leading to sudden weight loss,
nervousness, sweating
Hypothyroidism- underproduction of thyroid
hormones leading to obesity, infertility, heart
disease

Bronchi
Left Bronchus- takes air to the left lung
Right Bronchus- takes air to the right
lung
C-Shaped rings that resemble the
tracheas

Bronchial Tree
Think of a tree having a trunk (trachea), two
large branches (L. Bronchi & R. Bronchi)
Each of the large branches give rise to
secondary bronchi that enter the lobes of
that lung.
The bronchi divide into 9-10 smaller tertiary
and the bronchi become smaller and
smaller.
When the passageways diameter is <1 mm,
the narrow passage is a bronchiole

Bronchioles
Control the amount of resistance to air flow
Control the distribution of air in the lungs
Constriction can block the passageways
Ex. Asthma or allergic reactionsinflammation of the bronchioles

Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli

Bronchioles open (and end) into
chambers
Alveoli- pockets at the end of the
respiratory tree
Gas exchange with the blood occurs here
across the respiratory membrane

Adaptions of the Alveolus to

Gas Exchange
Alveoli are small but lungs contain millions
giving huge surface area
Wall of alveoli made of single layer of very thin
cells gases only have to diffuse short
distance
Alveolus covered by dense network of blood
capillaries with low O2 and high CO2
concentrations allowing diffusion
Cells of alveolus wall secrete fluid keeping inner
surface moist & allowing gases to dissolve.
Fluid is natural detergent and prevents sides
from sticking together

Gas exchange by diffusion in

the lungs
The alveoli have a capillary
network
CO2 leaves the veins and
Oxygen enters the alveoli

The Lungs
Paired organs of gas exchange
In the human:
Left Lung is divided into 2 lobes:
superior & inferior with a cardiac
notch
Right Lung is divided into 3 lobes:
Superior, middle, inferior

Lungs
Most of the actual volume of each
lung consists of air-filled
passageways and alveoli
The lung is light and spongy
Elastic fibers give the lungs the
ability to tolerate large changes in
volume

Pleural Cavities
The thoracic cavity has a broad cone
shape
The walls are the rib cage and its floor
is the muscular diaphragm
Diaphragm separates the thoracic
cavity from the abdominal cavity
Each lung occupies a single pleural
cavity, lined by a pleura membrane

Pleural Cavity

Pulmonary Ventilation
Physical movement of air into and
out of the respiratory tract
In other words, breathing in and out
one time is a respiratory cycle
Read page 51 of ib SG. TAKE NOTES

Oxygen Pickup and Delivery

Oxygen is retained by hemoglobin (haemoglobin)
Hemoglobin is the protein molecule found in
erythrocytes that is responsible for carrying most O2 in
blood
Hemoglobin can reversibly bind to as many as 4 O 2
and 1 CO2
Hemoglobin is four polypeptides with each polypeptide
having a haem group near its center
Binding happens at the haem group which has Fe at
its center that bonds to oxygen
If a tissue has a low oxygen content, oxygen will be
released by hemoglobin

Haemoglobin changes
shape and affinity when
carrying
oxygen
Hemoglobin has 4 possible shapes
depending on how many oxygen molecules
are bound to the iron of the haem groups
These different shapes affect hemoglobins
ability to bind with oxygen
This is known as hemoglobins affinity for
oxygen the greater the tendency to bond the
greater the affinity
Hemoglobin already carrying 3 oxygen have the
greatest affinity for oxygen
Hemoglobin carrying no oxygen has the least affinity

Cooperativity in O2 Binding
and Release
When O2 binds to one heme subunit
the others change shape slightly,
increasing their affinity for O
When 4 O2 molecules are bound and
one subunit unloads its O2, the other
3 subunits more readily unload, as an
associated shape change lowers their
affinity for O2

 Read and take notes page 169 ib SG

Bohr Effect/ Bohr Shift

The Bohr Effect is property of hemoglobin
where increasing concentration of protons
and/or carbon dioxide will reduce the
affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
See page 701 new ib text (bird)
Where CO2 production is greater, hemoglobin
releases more O2 (therefore more cell respiration takes
place)

Affinity Continued

Haemoglobin has a greater affinity

for CO than for oxygen
Carbon monoxide poisoning is deadly

Oxygen Dissociation Curves

Oxygen dissociation curves show the
tendency of haemoglobin to bind to
oxygen (affinity) and separate from
oxygen (dissociation)
X axis measures partial pressure of oxygen
Partial pressure is the pressure one gas exerts
within a mixture of gases

Y axis shows percentage saturation of

haemoglobin with oxygen

Adult Haemoglobin & Fetal

Haemoglobin
Fetal haemoglobin is different than
adult haemoglobin because the fetus
must have greater affinity for
oxygen.
In the placental capillaries adult
haemoglobin dissociates oxygen and
fetal haemoglobin binds to that same
oxygen

What is Myoglobin?
Myoglobin is an oxygen binding
protein found in muscles
Myoglobin consists of a single
polypeptide, a single haem group, and a
single iron atom
Each myoglobin can bind to one oxygen
Function of myoglobin is to store oxygen
within muscle tissues until muscles
enter an anaerobic situation

Carbon Dioxide Transport

After entering the bloodstream can CO2
may be:
1. Dissolved in the plasma (remains
as is)
2. Bound to the hemoglobin in RBC
3. Converted to a molecule of
carbonic acid

 Carbonic acid breaks down into a

hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion
Most hydrogen ions get bound up by
hemoglobin molecules (acting as
buffers)
Bicarbonate ions diffuse in to the
surrounding plasma
Here they associate with sodium ions to
form sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
MUST KNOW Hemoglobin page 924 of text

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Each year entire families can be killed
by leaky furnaces or space heaters
Found in the exhaust of automobiles,
oil lamps, space heaters
Carbon monoxide competes with
oxygen for the binding sites on heme
units and usually wins because it has
a much stronger affinity for
hemoglobin

Anemia
a deficiency of red blood cells or the
hemoglobin molecules within them
Oxygen has trouble getting where to it needs
to go because hemoglobin is not accessible
Therefore, the blood struggles to bring oxygen
molecules to tissuesfor energy in the body
This can be very serious because the human
body depends on oxygen to survive.
Ex.) holding your breath under water
Weakness, fatigue

SIDS
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
crib death
Kills ~ 10,000 infants each year in the
United States alone
Usually in infants 2-4 months old and
usually between midnight and 9 am in the
late fall and winter months
Eyewitness accounts- infant suddenly
stops breathing, turns blue and relaxes
Causes-many ideas- genetic, respiratory
infections, sleeping position, environment

Emphysema
Emphysema is a lung condition in
which the walls between individual
alveoli break down leading to an
increase in their size and therefore a
reduction in the surface area for gas
exchange which restricts oxygen
uptake into the blood
Caused by tobacco smoke or coal
dust

Lung Cancer
Originates in the bronchial passageways or
alveoli
85-90% of all lung cancers are the direct
result of cigarette smoking
Symptoms usually dont appear until the
point when the tumor masses are
restricting airflow.
Common symptoms- cough, wheeze, chest
pain, shortness of breath, wt. loss
Treatments vary- surgery, radiation or
chemotherapy may be involved