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KRT-2010
Introduction
Taxonomy
is the science of
classifying and identifying plants.
Scientific names are necessary
because the same common name is
used for different plants in different
areas of the world.
Latin is the language used for
scientific classification.
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Scientific Names
The
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Scientific Classification
Kingdom
Phylum/Division
Class
Order
Suborder
Family
Genus
Species
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Family
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Divisions
The
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Spermatophyta
Includes
flowering or seed-bearing
plants.
The two subdivisions are.
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
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12
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Classification - 5 kingdoms
(Whittaker, 1969)
Prokaryotae or Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animaliae
Classification - 3 kingdoms or domains (Woese, 1978)
Eubacteria - true bacteria
Archaebacteria - ancient bacteria
Eukaryotes - protists, fungi, plants, animals
Viruses????
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Structural adaptations
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Bacteria
Bacteria
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Anton
van Leeuwenhoek
accidentally noticed them
while looking at scrapings
from his teeth through a
very simple microscope. He
did not know what they
were, but he was essentially
the first person to see
bacteria.
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Archae - archaebacteria
Diverse morphologically
rods, cocci, spirilli, pleomorphic
Gram- positive or Gram-negative
Diverse metabolically
aerobes, facultative anaerobes, strict anaerobes
inorganic to organic electron sources
psychrophiles, mesophiles, thermophiles
ether-linked lipids
some produce methane
most thermophiles
Cell wall
Molecular - some characteristics like bacteria
some characteristics like eukaryotes
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Prokaryotic cell
Shapes: rod (bacillus, bacilli)
sphere (coccus, cocci)
spiral (spirillum, spirilli)
pleomorphic
Cell arrangement: single cell
pairs (diplococcus)
chains
clusters
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Prokaryotic Cells
Simplest organisms
Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane and
encased in a rigid cell wall composed of
peptidoglycan.
no distinct interior compartments
gram-positive thick single layer wall that
retains a violet dye from Gram stain procedure
gram-negative multilayered wall does not
retain dye
Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics
depends on cell wall structure.
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SPIROCHETES
helical rods with axial filament
motile
habitat: mud to intestinal tract
metabolism: chemoheterotrophs
aerobic to anaerobic
saprophytes to obligate parasites
Treponema pallidum - syphillis
T. partenue - yaws
Borellia burgdorferi - Lyme disease
Leptospira - leptospirosis
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Bacteroides - peritonitis
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Escherichia Serratia
Salmonella Proteus
Shigella
Yersinia
Klebsiella
Vibrionaceae
Vibrio
Pasteurellaceae
Pasteurella
Hemophilus
Uncertain affiliation Gardnerella
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insect vector
Chlamydia
sexually transmitted
MYCOPLASMA
Mycoplasma
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GRAM-POSITIVE COCCI
Micrococcaceae
Aerobic to facultatively anaerobic
Single cell to irregular clusters
Staphylococcus
Streptococcaceae
Anaerobic
Pairs to chains
Lactic acid bacteria
Streptococcus
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MYCOBACTERIA
Rod-shaped cells
Aerobic
Non-motile
Waxy coat; dont stain readily
Acid-fast
Mycobacterium
M. tuberculosis
M. leprae
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Exotoxins poisons
secreted by bacteria
(staphylococcus aureaus
can cause toxic shock
syndrome, also toxic
strains of e. coli)
Endotoxins poisonous
glycolipid components of
the cell wall of some
bacteria. (salmonella
food poisoning or typhoid
fever
Sanitation, antibiotics and
education have stopped
much fatality (e.g. Lyme
disease)
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Most bacteria is
not harmful
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Viruses
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Viruses
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Prokaryotic Cells
Flagellin
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Sheath
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Eukaryotic Cells
Characterized
by
compartmentalization by an
endomembrane system, and the
presence of membrane-bound
organelles.
Central vacuole plants, storage
Vesicles (smaller)
Chromosomes - DNA and protein
Cytoskeleton (internal protein scaffolding)
Cell walls plants and fungi
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Basics
Plants (like animals and fungi) are eukaryotes. Plants are
primitively photosynthetic, relying on organelles called
chloroplasts to capture light energy. (A few plants have lost this
ability and are parasitic on other plants). Most have highly
structured bodies, with green material growing upwards and roots
growing down. Their cell walls are reinforced with tough polymers,
notably cellulose and lignin.
All are capable of sexual reproduction, and their classification is
heavily based on studies of their reproductive organs. All exhibit a
phenomenon called alternation of generations, which you may well
be unaware of and which we will look at closely later in the lecture.
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Taxonomy - definitions
Plants are widely taken to be the green things that make flowers
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Algae
An Overview
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Algae
Algae
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Characteristics
Range in size from microscopic to single
celled organisms to large seaweed
Autotrophic
Form the reproductive structures
gametangia or gamete chambers
Aquatic and have flagella at some point in
life
Often contain pyrenoids, organelles that
synthesis and store starch
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STRUCTURE
Thallus
(haploid)
Four types of algae
Unicellular
Colonial
Filamentous
multicellular
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CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
COLOR
TYPE OF CHLOROPHYLL
FOOD-STORAGE SUBSTANCE
CELL WALL COMPOSITION
PHYLUM/DIVISION:
CYANOPHYTA MONERA
CHRYSOPHYTA PROTISTA Unicellular Eukaryote
PYRROPHYTA PROTISTA Unicellular Eukaryote
EUGLENOPHYTA
CHLOROPHYTA
PHAEOPHYTA
RHODOPHYTA
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Algae can be
Red
Brown
Yellow
Or
Green
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Protozoans
Protazoans are
microsopic organisms
that usually live in water
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Movement
Protozoans move
through their
environment in different
ways
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Cilia
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A 3-d
Image of
cilia
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Flagela
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Psudopods
Little
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Microorganisms
Require food, air and a way to
dispose of waste
Are found everywhere
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REPRODUCTION
MOST REPRODUCE BOTH
SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
Most sexual reproduction is
triggered by environmental
stress
Asexual Reproduction
Mitosis
Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis
Zoospores
Plus
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Oedogonium reproduction
Antheridium-release
flagellated sperm that swim
to the oogonium
Oogonium-houses the
zygote which is a diploid
spore
oogonium
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holdfast
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Two distinct
multicellular
phases- one is
haploid and the
other is diploid
Gametophyte is
haploid
Sporophyte is
diploid
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Divisio :Chrysophyta
(Termasuk Protista)
Ciri-ciri :
- Bersifat uniselular, dinding sel terdiri atas pektin yang
lunak
- Selnya berinti, kromatofora mengandung klorofil a,
karotin, santofil dan suatu karotenoid yang menyerupai
fikosantin.
- Sebagian besar bersifat autotrof, kecuali yang tidak
berwarna : heterotrof.
- Tempat hidup : air laut dan air tawar (sering melekat
pada tumbuhan air).
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Phylum Euglenophyta
1000 species of
Euglenoids
Have both plantlike
and animal-like
characteristics
Fresh water
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Phylum Chlorophyta
Green
algae
7000 diverse species
Biologist reason that green algae
give rise to land plants.
Both green algae and land plants
have chlorophyll a and B as well as
carotenoids and store food as starch
Both have walls made of cellulose
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Divisio: Chlorophyta
Ganggang Hijau
Ciri-ciri
1. Pigmen, khlorofil a dan b, serta karoten. Khlorofil terdapat dalam
jumlah yang banyak sehingga ganggang ini berwarna hijau
2. Hasil fotosintesis berupa amilum dan tersimpan dalam khloroplas.
3. Khloroplas berjumlah satu atau lebih; berbentuk mangkuk, bintang,
lensa, bulat, pita, spiral
4. Sel mempunyai 2 atau 4 flagela sama panjang.
5. Dinding sel mengandung selulose.
6. Perkembangbiakan: aseksual dengan Zoospora dan seksual
dengan anisogami
Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar ( 90%) merupakan algae air tawar terdapat pula di tanah
atau di dinding tembok yang lembab, di atas batang pohon dan dapat pula
sebagai epifil (pada permukaan daun).
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Phylum Phaeophyta
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Divisio: Phaeophyta
Ganggang Coklat
Ciri-ciri
-Tubuh selalu berupa talus yang multiseluler yang
berbentuk filamen, lembaran atau menyerupai
semak/pohon yang dapat mencapai beberapa puluh
meter, terutama jenis-jenis yang hidup di lautan daerah
beriklim dingin.
- Bersel banyak dan berwarna pirang (fikosantin)
- Kromatofora mengandung klorofil a, karotin, xantofil,
dan fikosantin.
Tempat hidup
Sebagian besar hidup di laut hanya ada beberapa jenis
saja yang hidup di air tawar.
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Phylum Rhodophyta
4000
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Divisio: Rhodophyta
(Ganggang Merah)
Ciri-ciri
1. Sel mempunyai dinding yang terdiri dari selulose .
Rhodophyceae tidak pernah menghasilkan sel-sel
berflagela.
2. Pigmen Khlorofil: terdiri dari khlorofil a, karotenoid, fikoeritrin
dan fikosianin yang sering disebut pigmen aksesoris. karoten Pigmen-pigmen tersebut terdapat dalam kloroplas
3. Cadangan makanan berupa tepung floride (hasil polimerase
dari glukosa) dan terdapat diluar khloroplas.
4. Talus Hampir semuanya multiseluler, hanya 2 marga saja
yang uniseluler. Talus yang multiseluler berbentuk filamen
silinder ataupun helaian. Talus umumnya melekat pada
substrat dengan perantaraan alat pelekat.
5. Habitat : laut yang dalam
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Golden algae
Important in
the formation
of petroleum
products
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Funguslike Protist
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Have both
unicellular
and
multicellular
life stages
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Common everywhere
there is moist and
decaying matter
Large and branching,
but not multicellular.
The weblike form
increases the surface
area to contact food
water and oxygen
When food is is scarce
it addapts the
reproductive
structures at the
bottom
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Water Molds
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Look
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That
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It's
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ZYGOTES
We already talked a little about mold.
That is only one example of the
Zygote Fungi.
These have hyphae-like mushrooms
but they reproduce in a different way.
When it's time to make more fungi,
they create a stalk and release
something called zygospores (thus
the name zygote).
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When
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SINGLE CELLS
Now
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Fungi
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Heterotrophic they
cannot make their
own food molecules
Some like mycorrhizae
absorb essential
minerals from the soil
needed by plants
About 80% of plant
disease is caused by
fungi which are
parasites
Many decompose
organic matter
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I am not mold !
I am not rotting you!
I am Mycorrhizae,
I am a fun guy
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Decomposers and
recyclers of organic
matter
Used to ripen cheese
Yeasts used in baking,
brewing and
winemaking
Produce antibiotics
As well as the
mutualistic partners in
mycorrhizae and
lichens
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YEAST
Yeast is used to make several types of
food for humans. We need yeast to
make breads. We also use them to
make alcohol. It's a whole process called
fermentation.
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Parasitic fungi
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Antibiotics
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Bryophytes
(mosses,
liverworts)
Pteridophytes
Ferns and
allies
Gymnosperms:
Conifers,
cycads etc
Angiosperms:
Flowering
plants
Mesozoic
120MYBP
Carboniferous
350MYBP
Devonian
400MYBP
Seeds
Vascular tissues (tracheids or derivatives)
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Nonvascular Plants
Bryophytes
Fewer
than 19,000
species
Three
groups
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
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Bryophytes
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Includes mosses
Have a cuticle and
embryos retained on
the parent plant
Lack vascular tissue,
but some have waterconducting tubes
Lack internal support
Plants grow in a tight
pack holding each
other up
Flagellated sperm
must swim
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Bryophytes
Small,
nonvascular, nonwooody
Gametophyte dominates life
cycle; has leaflike, stemlike,
and rootlike parts
Usually live in wet habitats
Flagellated sperm require water
to reach eggs
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Bryophytes
These are the mosses and liverworts, both relatively common wellknown groups of non-flowering plants typical of permanently
damp areas. (Actually a few specialise in dry open sites fire
sites, bare concrete etc). The dominant phase is a leafy form (the
gametophyte), which is genetically different to the stalked pods
that produce its spores.
A typical moss, showing
the spore capsule, which
is a genetically different
plant to the green fronds
from which it grows.
(More later..)
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Types of Bryophytes
Mosses (most common)
Liverworts (simplest)
Hornworts
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Marchantia
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Marchantia: A Liverwort
Reproduces
Do not
post on
Internet
asexually by
gemmae
Gametophytes
are male or
female
Female gametophyte
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Figure 23.7
133
Page 389
zygote
Zygote grows,
develops into a
sporophyte while
still attached to
gametophyte.
mature
sporophyte
Diploid Stage
Fertilization
Haploid Stage
Meiosis
Spores
germinate.
spermproducing
structure
Figure 23.5
Page 388
eggproducing
structure
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male
gametophyte
female
gametophyte
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Peat Mosses
350 species
Sphagnum is an example
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Perkembangbiakan
Tumbuhan lumut mengalami pergiliran keturunan dalam daur hidupnya. Apa
yang dikenal orang sebagai tumbuhan lumut merupakan tahap gametofit
(tumbuhan penghasil gamet) yang haploid (x = n). Dengan demikian,
terdapat tumbuhan lumut jantan dan betina karena satu tumbuhan tidak
dapat menghasilkan dua sel kelamin sekaligus.
Sel-sel kelamin jantan (sel sperma) dihasilkan dari anteridium dan sel-sel
kelamin betina (sel telur atau ovum) terletak di dalam arkegonium. Kedua
organ penghasil sel kelamin ini terletak di bagian puncak dari tumbuhan.
Anteridium yang masak akan melepas sel-sel sperma. Sel-sel sperma
berenang (pembuahan terjadi apabila kondisi lingkungan basah) menuju
arkegonium untuk membuahi ovum.
Ovum yang terbuahi akan tumbuh menjadi sporofit yang tidak mandiri karena
hidupnya disokong oleh gametofit. Sporofit ini diploid (x = 2n) dan berusia
pendek (3-6 bulan untuk mencapai tahap kemasakan). Sporofit akan
membentuk kapsula yang disebut sporogonium pada bagian ujung.
Sporogonium berisi spora haploid yang dibentuk melalui meiosis.
Sporogonium masak akan melepaskan spora. Spora tumbuh menjadi suatu
berkas-berkas yang disebut protonema. Berkas-berkas ini tumbuh meluas
dan pada tahap tertentu akan menumbuhkan gametofit baru.
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Vascular Plants
Majority
Have
of plants
groups
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Includes ferns
Well-developed roots
and rigid stems
Flagellated sperm that
require water to reach
eggs
In many species the
leaves sprout from
stems that grow along
the ground
(fiddleheads)
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Like bryophytes
Live in wet, humid places
Require water for
fertilization
Unlike bryophytes
Sporophyte is free-living
and has vascular tissues
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Ferns
These are ancient but still successful forms, in which the spore-bearing
stage is very familiar. Bracken Pteridium aquilinum is one of the most
widespread and pernicious weeds on the planet! We still have tree ferns,
native to Gondwanaland (Australasia, South America, Africa) but now
widely planted in tropical, subtropical and frost-free temperate areas. In
all cases spores are shed from the underside of the leaves (fronds).
Bracken Pteridium aquilinum
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Ferns (Pterophyta)
12,000
145
sorus
zygote
fertilization
egg
rhizome
Diploid Stage
meiosis
Haploid Stage
Spores develop
Spores
are
released
sperm
Figure 23.9
Page 391
mature
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gametophyte
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Spore germinates
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Horsetails, contd.
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Club mosses
(Lycophyta):
Lycopodiacea
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Morfologi
- Akar yang tumbuh pertama tidak dominan, disusul akar
lain yang tumbuh dari batang
- Batang bercabang, menggarpu
- Dapat berbentuk semak , pohon sampai beberapa meter.
- Ukuran daun bervariasi sampai 6 m;pada umumnya
berdaun majemuk; tipe daun kecil, tidak bertangkai dan
hanya mempunyai satu tulang daun, tersusun rapat
menurut garis spiral (Lycopsida=paku kawat).
Perkembangbiakan : vegetatif : spora
- Sporangium dan spora terdapat pada daun-daun khusus :
sporofil (sering terkumpul membentuk alat yang
menyerupai bunga pada Spermatophyta).
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Kelas Psilotopsida
Bangsa Ophioglossales
Suku Ophioglossaceae (termasuk Botrychiaceae,
Helminthostachyaceae)
Bangsa Psilotales
Suku Psilotaceae (termasuk Tmesipteridaceae)
Kelas Equisetopsida [=Sphenopsida]
Bangsa Equisetales
Suku Equisetaceae
Kelas Marattiopsida
Bangsa Marattiales
Suku Marattiaceae (termasuk Angiopteridaceae, Christenseniaceae,
Danaeaceae, Kaulfussiaceae)
Kelas Polypodiopsida [=Filicopsida, Pteridopsida]
Bangsa Osmundales
Suku Osmundaceae
Bangsa Hymenophyllales
Suku Hymenophyllaceae (termasuk Trichomanaceae)
Bangsa Gleicheniales
Suku Gleicheniaceae (termasuk Dicranopteridaceae,
Stromatopteridaceae)
Suku Dipteridaceae (termasuk Cheiropleuriaceae)
Suku Matoniaceae
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Bangsa Schizaeales
Suku Lygodiaceae
Suku Anemiaceae (termasuk Mohriaceae)
Suku Schizaeaceae
Bangsa Salviniales
Suku Marsileaceae (termasuk Pilulariaceae)
Suku Salviniaceae (termasuk Azollaceae)
Bangsa Cyatheales
Suku Thyrsopteridaceae
Suku Loxomataceae
Suku Culcitaceae
Suku Plagiogyriaceae
Suku Cibotiaceae
Suku Cyatheaceae (termasuk Alsophilaceae,
Hymenophyllopsidaceae)
Suku Dicksoniaceae (termasuk Lophosoriaceae)
Suku Metaxyaceae
Bangsa Polypodiales
Suku Lindsaeaceae (termasuk Cystodiaceae,
Lonchitidaceae)
Suku Saccolomataceae
Suku Dennstaedtiaceae (termasuk Hypolepidaceae,
Monachosoraceae, Pteridiaceae)
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Suku Tectariaceae
Suku Oleandraceae
Suku Davalliaceae
Suku Polypodiaceae (termasuk Drynariaceae,
Grammitidaceae, Gymnogrammitidaceae,
Loxogrammaceae, Platyceriaceae,
Pleurisoriopsidaceae)
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first
arose
Cycads
Ginkgos
Gnetophytes
Conifers
Angiosperms
arose later
Monocots
Dicots
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Evolutionary Trend
Figure 23.2
Page 386
zygote
SP
GA ORO
ME PH
TO YTE
PH
YT (2n)
E(
n)
GREEN ALGA
BRYOPHYTE
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FERN
GYMNOSPERM
ANGIOSPERM
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Traits of
Seed-Bearing Plants
Pollen
grains
159
years ago
Seed
arose later
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Carboniferous
Giant
Sea
Remains
Formation
of coal
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Seed-Bearing Plants
Microspores
pollen grains
Megaspores
More
inside ovules
water-conserving than
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SPERMATOPHYTA
-Tingkat perkembangan yang paling tinggi
-Telah menghasilkan biji: tumbuhan berbiji
(Spermatophyta)
-Biji berasal dari bunga : Tumbuhan Berbunga (Anthophyta)
-Dibagi menjadi 2 sub divisi: tumbuhan berbiji telanjang
(Gymnospermae) dan berbiji tertutup = bakal biji terbungkus
oleh karpela/daun buah (Angiospermae)
- Angiospermae terdiri dari dua kelas : Dicotyledoneae
(tumbuhan biji belah/memiliki dua daun lembaga) dan
Monocotyledoneae ( mempunyai satu daun lembaga)
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Gymnosperms
Naked seed
because it isnt
produced in a
specialized
chamber
Conifers pine,
spruce, and fir are
the largest group
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Gymnosperms
This group contains many well-known plants, including all
coniferous trees (pines, larch, spruce etc), yews and allies, along
with other living fossils the cycads, plus a few simple plain
oddities thrown in to keep botanists happy.
Gymnosperm means naked seed, and indeed in this group the
fertilised seed protrudes from the cone/aril. They have apparently
lost the sporophyte generation (but see later), and are now trees
which shed viable seed that germinates to make a new tree the
pattern of seed germination which we are familiar with. They have
tracheids allowing water to be sucked to great heights: the this
group contains probably the largest (Sequoia) and oldest
(Bristlecone pine, Pinus aristata) organisms in the world.
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Gymnosperms
Plants
Seeds
ovary
Four
groups
Conifers
Ginkgos
Cycads
Gnetophytes
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Conifer Characteristics
Widest
Woody
trees or shrubs
Most
are evergreen
Bear
Most
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Conifers
173
Cycads
Most
diverse during
age of dinosaurs
Only 100 living
species
Palmlike appearance
Pollen-bearing and
seed-bearing cones
on different plants
Figure 23.14e
Page 394
KRT-2010
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post on
Internet
Cycads
175
Ginkgos
Diverse
during
age of dinosaurs
One surviving
species, Ginkgo
biloba
Deciduous trees
are male or
female
KRT-2010
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post
photos
on
Internet
Fig.176
23.15
Page 395
177
3 Genera of Gnetophytes
Gnetum
Welwitschia
Ephedra
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Sporophyte of Ephedra
KRT-2010
Figure 23.16a
178
Page 395
Welwitschia mirabilis
This is certainly one of the strangest plants in the world, whose
classification inside the gymnosperms has long been assumed but
is confirmed by DNA analyses.
It lives only in the Namib desert, South Africa, in a region where
rain never falls. Instead it relies on the mist that condenses in
coastal regions where cold currents from the southern oceans well
up against the desert.
Welwitschia has only 2 leaves, long strap-like ones that grow
perpetually from their base while the ends become frayed and tatty.
It is dioecious.
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179
Pine Cones
Woody
180
section
through one
ovule
ovule
section through a
pollen-producing sac
seed
coat
zygote
seeding
pollen tube
spermproducing cell
Diploid
embryo
seed
fertilization
meiosis
Haploid
microspores
eggs
form
megaspores
pollination
form
female
gametophyte
KRT-2010
Figure 23.17
181
Page 396
Conifer Distribution
Reproduce
Still
182
Angiosperms
KRT-2010
Flowering plants
183
Angiosperms
Flowering
plants
Dominant
Ovules
Three
184
star
anise
magnoliids
basal groups
KRT-2010
monocots
eudicots
Figure 23.19a
Page 398
185
Double Fertilization
Distinctive
feature of angiosperms
Male
One
186
sporophyte
Flowering
Plant Life
Cycle
Diploid
Double fertilization
Haploid
pollination
two
sperm
enter
ovule
KRT-2010
Meiosis
microspores
female gametophyte
Meiosis
mitosis
without
cytoplasmic
division
Figure 23.20
187
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Angiosperms: Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons
Flowering plants (phylum Anthophyta) come in two fundamentally
different designs or classes, known as the Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons. Or Monocots and Dicots in botanical jargon.
Formally these are defined by the number of seed leaves, or
cotyledons, that emerge when the seed 1st germinates. In
Monocotyledons it is 1, in Dicotyledons it is 2. Coinciding with
this are a series of other characteristics which are so consistent that
everyone seemed happy that these are monophyletic groups,
splitting from the gymnosperms about 130 MYBP (early
Cretaceous).
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Monocot
Dicot
Flower parts
Usually in threes, or
multiples of threes
Usually in fours or
fives
Cotyledons
One
Two
Leaf venation
Usually parallel
Usually netlike
Primary vascular
bundles in stem
KRT-2010
Commonly
present
189
Monocotyledons
This truly monophyletic group contains all
grasses, sedges, rushes, bamboo etc. Orchids.
Pineapples and allies (the bromeliads). Lilies,
and their succulent relatives Aloes. Few trees
but including bananas and palms.
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Dicotyledons.
Actually the
eudicotyledons plus a few others
It is here that I have to confess to a certain
oversimplification. Neat though the division was, recent
(late 1990s) DNA work has shown that the group known
as Dicots consists of 4 groups, all as unrelated to each
other as they are to the monocots. Fortunately, virtually
all the ones you are likely to meet are in a good
monophyletic group, now called the Eudicotyledons.
(Sometimes DNA research makes a good simple system
needlessly complicated..)
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Eudicotyledons
Here we have most
gardens flowers, all
herbs, cacti, climbers, and
most trees.
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About
Now
193
Furniture
Rope
Thatched
Natural
roofing
insecticides
Drugs
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Plants of Abuse
Tobacco
195
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