WDM Concept and

Components
Chapter no.10

Overview Chapter 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9

Overview of WDM
Passive Optical Couplers
Isolators and Circulators
Fiber Grating Filters
Dielectric Thin-Film Filters
Phased-Array-Based Devices
Diffraction Gratings
Active Optical Components
Tunable Light Sources
2

Part 1: WDM Concept

Evolution of the Technology

Why WDM?
Capacity upgrade of existing fiber
networks (without adding fibers)
Transparency: Each optical channel
can carry any transmission format
(different asynchronous bit rates,
analog or digital)
Scalability Buy and install
equipment for additional demand as
needed
Wavelength routing and switching:
Wavelength is used as another

Overview of WDM
A characteristic of WDM is that the discrete
wavelengths form an orthogonal set of
carriers that can be separated, routed, and
switched without interfering with each
other.
WDM networks require a variety of passive
and active devices to combine, distribute,
isolate, and amplify optical power at
different wavelengths.

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing

Each wavelength is like a separate

channel (fiber)

TDM Vs WDM

Ex: SONET

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing

Passive/active devices are needed

to combine, distribute, isolate and
amplify optical power at different
wavelengths

WDM, CWDM and DWDM

WDM technology uses multiple wavelengths to
transmit information over a single fiber
Coarse WDM (CWDM) has wider channel spacing (20
nm) low cost
Dense WDM (DWDM) has dense channel spacing (0.8
nm) which allows simultaneous transmission of 16+
wavelengths high capacity

WDM and DWDM

First WDM networks used just two
wavelengths, 1310 nm and 1550 nm
Today's DWDM systems utilize 16,
32,64,128 or more wavelengths in the
1550 nm window
Each of these wavelength provide an
independent channel (Ex: each may
transmit 10 Gb/s digital or SCMA analog)
The range of standardized channel grids
includes 50, 100, 200 and 1000 GHz
spacing
Wavelength spacing practically depends
on:

WDM Spectral Bands

Many independent narrowband regions in
the O- through L-bands can be used
simultaneously.
These regions are designated either in
terms of spectral width or optical
bandwidth.
The optical bandwidth related to a
particular spectral width is found by
differentiating c = ; for << 2

12

ITU-T Standard Transmission

DWDM windows
c
2

Principles of DWDM
BW of a modulated laser: 10-50 MHz
0.001 nm
Typical Guard band: 0.4 1.6 nm
80 nm or 14 THz @1300 nm band
120 nm or 15 THz @ 1550 nm
Discrete wavelengths form individual
channels that can be modulated, routed and
switched individually
These operations require
c variety of passive
2
Ex. 10.1
and active devices

WDM Standards

ITU-T Recommendation G.694.1 specifies DWDM

operation in the S-, C-, and L-bands for frequency
spacing of 100 to 12.5 GHz (or, equivalently, 0.8 to
0.1 nm at 1550 nm).
The number NM is used by ITU-T to designate a
specific 19N.M-THz C-band 100-GHz channel, e.g., the
frequency 194.3 THz is ITU channel 43.

15

Nortel OPTERA 640 System

64 wavelengths each carrying 10 G

DWDM Limitations
Theoretically large number of
channels can be packed in a fiber

For physical realization of DWDM

networks we need precise
wavelength selective devices
Optical amplifiers are imperative
to provide long transmission
distances without repeaters

Part II: WDM Devices

10.2 Passive Optical

Couplers
Passive devices operate completely in the
optical domain to split and combine light
streams.
They include N N couplers (with N 2),
power splitters, power taps, and star
couplers.
They can be fabricated either from optical
fibers or by means of planar optical
waveguides using material such as LiNbO3,
InP, silica, silicon oxynitride, or various
polymers.
20

The 2 2 Fiber Coupler

P0 is the input power, P1 is the throughout power, and P2 is

the power coupled into the second fiber.
P3 and P4 are extremely low signal levels (-50 to -70 dB
below the input level) resulting from backward reflections
and scattering in the device
The evanescent tail
from one fiber core
couples into
another closely
spaced fiber core

Optical power
coupling

21

Performance of an
Optical Coupler
3-dB coupler: P1 = P2 = 0.5 P0
Tap coupler: P2 = 0.005 P0 (- 23
dB)

22

Example Coupler
Performance

23

Star Couplers
In general, an N M coupler has N inputs
and M outputs

24

N N Star Coupler
Can construct star couplers by cascading 3dB couplers
The number of 3-dB couplers needed to
construct an N N star is

25

Key Components for

WDM
Passive Optical Components
Wavelength Selective Splitters
Wavelength Selective Couplers
Active Optical Components
Tunable Optical Filter
Tunable Source
Optical amplifier
Add-drop Multiplexer and De-multiplexer

Photo detector
Responsivity

Photo detectors are

sensitive over
wide spectrum
(600 nm).
Hence, narrow
optical filters
needed to
separate channels
before the
detection in
DWDM systems

Passive Devices
These operate completely in the
optical domain (no O/E conversion)
and does not need electrical power
Split/combine light stream Ex: N X N
couplers, power splitters, power taps
and star couplers
Technologies: - Fiber based or
Optical waveguides based
Micro (Nano) optics based

Fabricated using optical fiber or

waveguide (with special material like

Filter, Multiplexer and

Router

Basic Star Coupler

May have N inputs and M outputs

Can be wavelength

selective/nonselective
Up to N =M = 64, typically N, M <
10

Fused-Biconical coupler OR
Directional coupler

P3, P4 extremely low ( -70 dB below Po)

Coupling / Splitting Ratio = P2/(P1+P2)
If P1=P2 It is called 3-dB coupler

Fused Biconical Tapered

Coupler
Fabricated by twisting together,
melting and pulling together two
single mode fibers
They get fused together over length
W; tapered section of length L; total
draw length = L+W
Significant decrease in V-number in
the coupling region; energy in the
core leak out and gradually couples
into the second fibre

Definitions
Splitting (Coupling) Ratio = P2 ( P1 P2 )

Excess Loss =10 Log[ P0 ( P1 P2 )]

Insertion Loss =10 Log[ Pin Pout ]

Crosstalk = 10 Log( P3 P0 )
Try Ex. 10.2

P1 P0 cos2 (z )
P2 P0 sin 2 (z )

Coupler
characteri
stics
: Coupling Coefficient

Coupler Characteristics
power ratio between both output can
be changed by adjusting the draw length
of a simple fused fiber coupler

It can be made a WDM de-multiplexer:

Example, 1300 nm will appear output 2 (p2) and
1550 nm will appear at output 1 (P1)
However, suitable only for few wavelengths that
are far apart, not good for DWDM

Wavelength Selective
Devices
These perform their operation on the
incoming optical signal as a function of
the wavelength
Examples:
Wavelength add/drop multiplexers
Wavelength selective optical
combiners/splitters
Wavelength selective switches and
routers

Fused-Fiber Star
Coupler

Splitting Loss = -10 Log(1/N) dB = 10 Log (N) dB

Excess Loss = 10 Log (Total Pin/Total Pout)
Fused couplers have high excess loss

8x8 bi-directional star coupler

by cascading 3 stages of 3-dB
Couplers
,
, ,
1

1, 2

3, 4 7, 8

N
Number of 3-dB Couplers N c = log 2 N
2

(12 = 4 X 3)
Try Ex. 10.5

Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Multiplexers

By splitting the input beam and introducing a phase

shift in one of the paths, the recombined signals will
interfere constructively at one output and
destructively at the other.
In the central region, when the signals in the two
arms come from the same light source, the outputs
from these two guides have a phase difference

39

Cascaded MZIs
Using basic 2 2 MZIs, any size
N N multiplexer (with N = 2n)
can be constructed.
Each module i has a different Li
in order to have all wavelengths
exit at port C

40

Optical Isolators
Optical isolators allow light to pass in only
one direction.
This prevents scattered or reflected light
from traveling in the reverse direction.
E.g., can keep backward-traveling light from
entering a laser diode and possibly causing
Polarizationinstabilities in the optical output.

independent isolator
made of three
miniature optical
components

41

Optical Circulators
An optical circulator is a
nonreciprocal multiport
passive device that
directs light sequentially
from port to port in only
one direction.
In the 3port example, an
input on port 1 is sent
out on port 2, an input
on port 2 is sent out on
port 3, and an input on
port 3 is sent out on port
1.

42

Isolator and Circulator

Parameters

43

Fiber Bragg
Grating

Fiber Bragg Grating

This is invented at Communication
Research Center, Ottawa, Canada
The FBG has changed the way
optical filtering is done
The FBG has so many applications
The FBG changes a single mode
fiber (all pass filter) into a
wavelength selective filter

Fiber Brag Grating (FBG)

Basic FBG is an in-fiber passive optical
band reject filter
FBG is created by imprinting a periodic
perturbation in the fiber core
The spacing between two adjacent slits is
called the pitch
Grating play an important role in:

Wavelength filtering
Dispersion compensation
Optical sensing
EDFA Gain flattening
Single mode lasers and many more areas

Bragg Grating formation

2 sin( / 2) uv

FBG Theory
Exposure to the high intensity UV
radiation changes the fiber core n(z)
permanently as a periodic function of
z

n( z ) ncore n[1 cos(2z / )]

z: Distance measured along fiber core axis

: Pitch of the grating
ncore: Core refractive index
n: Peak refractive index

Reflection at FBG

Simple De-multiplexing
Function

Reflected Wavelength B 2neff

Peak Reflectivity Rmax = tanh2(kL)

Wavelength Selective
DEMUX

Dispersion
Compensation

Longer wavelengths
take more time

Reverse the operation of

dispersive fiber
Shorter wavelengths
take more time

ADD/DROP MUX

FBG Reflects in both directions; it is bidirectional

Extended Add/Drop
Mux

FBG for DFB Laser

Only one wavelength gets positive feedback

single mode Distributed Feed Back laser

Advanced Grating
Profiles

FBG Properties
Advantages
Easy to manufacture, low cost, ease of coupling
Minimal insertion losses approx. 0.1 db or less
Passive devices
Disadvantages
Sensitive to temperature and strain.
Any change in temperature or strain in a FBG
causes the grating period and/or the effective
refractive index to change, which causes the
Bragg wavelength to change.
neff
neff
neff
T

Unique Application of FBG

Resonance Cavity with FBG

Transmission Characteristics

Experimental Set-Up

 What is the wavelength

separation when RF separation
50 MHz?

Interferometers

Interferometer
An interferometric device uses 2 interfering paths of
different lengths to resolve wavelengths
Typical configuration: two 3-dB directional couplers
connected with 2 paths having different lengths
Applications:
wideband filters (coarse WDM) that separate
signals at1300 nm from those at 1550 nm
narrowband filters: filter bandwidth depends on the
number of cascades (i.e. the number of 3-dB
couplers connected)

Basic Mach-Zehnder
Interferometer

Phase shift of the propagating wave increases with L,

Constructive or destructive interference depending on L

Mach-Zehnder
Interferometer
Phase shift at the output due to the
propagation path length difference:
2 neff

L

If the power from both inputs (at different

wavelengths) to be added at output port
2, then,
1 1
2 neff
L
1 2
Try Ex. 10-6

Four-Channel Wavelength
Multiplexer

By appropriately selecting L,
wavelength multiplexing/demultiplexing can be achieved

MZI- Demux Example

Arrayed Wave Guide

Filters

Each waveguide
has
slightly different
length

Phase Array Based WDM

Devices
The arrayed waveguide is a
generalization of 2x2 MZI
multiplexer
The lengths of adjacent
waveguides differ by a constant L
Different wavelengths get
multiplexed (multi-inputs one
output) or de-multiplexed (one
input multi output)
For wavelength routing
applications multi-input multi-

Diffraction Gratings
source impinges on a diffraction grating ,each wavelength
is diffracted at a different angle
Using a lens, these wavelengths can be focused onto
individual fibers.
Less channel isolation between closely spaced wavelengths.

Generating Multiple
Wavelength for WDM Networks
Discrete DFB lasers
Straight forward stable sources,
but expensive
Wavelength tunable DFB lasers
Multi-wavelength laser array
Integrated on the same
substrate
Multiple quantum wells for better
optical and carrier confinement
Spectral slicing LED source and
comb filters

Discrete SingleWavelength Lasers

Number of lasers into simple power
coupler; each emit one fixed
wavelength
Expensive (multiple lasers)
Sources must be carefully controlled
to avoid wavelength drift

Frequency Tuneable
Laser
Only one (DFB or DBR) laser that has
grating filter in the lasing cavity
Wavelength is tuned by either
changing the temperature of the
grating (0.1 nm/OC)
Or by altering the injection current
into the passive section (0.006
nm/mA)
The tuning range decreases with the
optical output power

Tunable Laser
Characteristics

Typically, tuning range 10-15 nm,

Channel spacing = 10 X Channel width

Tunable Filters
Tunable filters are made by at least one
branch of an interferometric filter has its
Propagation length or
Refractive index altered by a control mechanism

When these parameters change, phase of the

propagating light wave changes (as a
function of wavelength)
Hence, intensity of the added signal changes
(as a function of wavelength)
As a result, wavelength selectivity is achieved

Tunable Optical
Filters

Tuneable Filter
Considerations

Tuning Range (): 25 THz (or

200nm) for the whole 1330 nm to
1500 nm. With EDFA normally =
35 nm centered at 1550 nm
Channel Spacing (): the min.
separation between channels
selected to minimize crosstalk (30
dB or better)
Maximum Number of Channels (N =
/ ):

Issues in WDM
Networks

Nonlinear inelastic scattering processes

due to interactions between light and
molecular or acoustic vibrations in the
fibre
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

Nonlinear variations in the refractive index

due to varying light intensity
Self Phase Modulation (SPM)
Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)

Summary
DWDM plays an important role in high
capacity optical networks
Theoretically enormous capacity is possible
Practically wavelength selective (optical
signal processing) components and
nonlinear effects limit the performance
Passive signal processing elements like FBG,
AWG are attractive
Optical amplifications is imperative to
realize DWDM networks