GOOD

MORNING

CASTING PROCEDURE AND

CASTING DEFECTS

BY
Ramesh d, Maharjan
CDT

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS
HISTORY
STAGES OF CASTING PROCEDURE:

I) CLINICAL STEPS : 1) TOOTH PREPARATION

2) MAKING OF THE IMPRESSION
II) LABORATORY STEPS:
3) PREPARATION OF DIE OR CAST
4) WAX PATTERN PREPARATION
5) SPRUE FORMER & SPRUING
6) CASTING RING & RING LINERS
7) INVESTING
8) WAX ELIMINATION OR BURN OUT
9)CRUCIBLES
10) METHODS OF MELTING ALLOYS
11) CASTING MACHINES
12) CLEANING & FINISHING THE CASTING
CASTING DEFECTS

INTRODUCTION

Casting is one the most widely used methods for fabrication of

metallic restorations outside the mouth.

The technique of investment casting is both one of the oldest &

most advanced of the metallurgical arts.

The lost wax casting technique was 1st described at the end of 19th

century as a means of making dental castings.

The process consists of surrounding the wax pattern with a mold

made of heat resistant investment material, eliminating the wax by

heating and then introducing the molten metal into the mold
through a channel called Sprue.
4

 In Dentistry, the resulting casting must be a highly accurate replica

of wax pattern with surface details & accurate dimensions.

Small variations in investing or casting can significantly affect the

quality of final restoration.

Successful casting depends on accuracy & consistency of

technique.
We are going to know the exact influence of each variable in the

technique & to make rationale changes to modify the technique

according to need.

DEFINITIONS

1) ACCORDING TO GPT (7th edition): Casting is defined as

something that has been cast in a mold, an object formed by the
solidification of a fluid that has been poured or injected into a
mold.

2) ACCORDING TO CRAIG (12th Edition): Casting is the process by

which a wax pattern of a restoration is converted to a replicate in a
dental alloy.
3) ACCORDING TO WILLIAM J. OBRIEN (3 rd edition): Casting is a
process of forming objects by pouring molten metals in molds that
are cooled to cause solidification.
7

4) CASTING PROCEDURE: It is a process of obtaining a metallic

duplicate of a missing tooth structure by pouring molten metal
into a mold of a required form & allowing it to solidify to obtain a
metallic duplicate.

5) LOST WAX TECHNIQUE:

It is so named because a wax
pattern of a restoration is invested in a ceramic material, then the
pattern is burned out (Lost) to create a space into which molten
metal is placed or cast.

6) CASTABILITY:

The ability of an alloy to completely fill a mold.

8

OBJECTIVE OF CASTING PROCEDURE :

To provide a metallic duplication of the missing
tooth structure , with as much accuracy as
possible .

HISTORY
Lost Wax Method dates back to atleast 4th millenium B.C.
Dental casting procedures have originated from Black smithery

which dates back to the early civilizations of Mesopotamia to Egypt

where Utensils, Weapons & Tools were cast in Brass alloys using
simple techniques.
Remarkably, civilizations as diverse as Chinas Han Dynasty, the

Benin kingdom in Africa & the Aztecs of pre-columbian Mexico

employed similar techniques.
The use of dental casting machines to fabricate cast metal

restoration is credited to the people of the early chinese civilization

in the Bronze age.
Dental castings were first seen in the Skulls of people of the

10

11

 11th Century Theophilus Described lost wax technique, which

was a common practice prevailed in 11th century.

1558 Benvenuto Cellini Claimed to have attempted, use of

wax and clay for preparation of castings.

Cast his bronze masterpiece Perseus & the Head of Medusa using

the Lost wax process.

1884 Agulihon de saran Used 24K gold to form Inlay

1887 J. R. Knapp Invented Blowpipe
1897 Philbrook Described a method of casting metal filling.
12

1907 Taggart Devised a practically useful casting

machine.
-The casting procedure by the Lost wax technique was introduced by
Dr.William H.Taggart .
-Introduced this technique and the casting machine in 1907 before
the
New York Odontological group .

13

Gold melted with a blowpipe was then forced into the plaster

mold by means of casting machine, which utilized compressed air.

Blowpipe

Compressed ai
cylinder

Inlay Mold

14

LANE Suggested the idea of casting by using investment

containing high percentage of Silica to plaster of paris at 650
degrees c. to compensate for casting shrinkage.
1910 Von Horn introduced a different method of compensation-

wax pattern investmentequal to mouth temperature using high

silica content investment.
1932 SCHEN developed a technique employing hygroscopic

expansion of investment to compensate for shrinkage of casting.

1933 Base Metal Alloys for RPD.
1942 SONDER recognised that thermal expansion of investment

was greatly inhibited by metal casting ring & advocated lining the
15
ring with soft asbestos.

 1950-Development of resin veneers for gold alloys

1959-Porcelain fused to metal technique
1968 Palladium Alloys for Gold Alloy.
1970 Ni-Cr Alloys for RPD, FPD.
1971 The Gold Standard.

1977 - B.G. Waterstrat et al produced the worlds first Ti dental

casting .
16

 1978 - Wilmer B. Eames and John F. MacNamara concluded that:

Vacuum casting machines produced sharper margins than the

centrifugal casting machines.

1980 All Ceramic Technologies.

1984 Classification of Casting Alloys.

17

 1985 - T.E. Donovan and L.E. White studied the increase in

castability of an alloy by increasing the rate of acceleration of the

centrifugal casting machine.
Waterstrat designed, split-chamber argon-vacuum casting

equipment .
1989 - H. Hamanaka, H. Doi et al devised a new casting machine for

dental casting of titanium and Ni-Ti alloys

1990 - Arturo R. Hruska introduced the Titanium Decontaminator, a

device which decontaminates the mold before the actual process of

casting was carried out.
1999 Gold alloys for Palladium alloys.
2002 ADA proposals for mechanical properties

18

STAGES OF CASTING PROCEDURE

I)

CLINICAL STEPS:

1. TOOTH PREPARATION: Preparation of the tooth

structure to receive the cast restoration.

19

TOOTH PREPARATION FOR INLAY CAST

RESTORATION
Walls proper Facial & lingual walls parallel to the long axis of

crown
Occlusal bevel 30-45 degrees to long axis of crown on outer
plane of walls.
Flat pulpal floor
Axial wall Flat or slightly rounded in bucco-lingual direction
Gingival floor Flat in bucco-lingual direction

20

2. MAKING OF IMPRESSION
Impression of the prepared tooth structure.
Indirect technique fabricating cast restorations.

OBJECTIVES OF IMPRESSIONS FOR INDIRECT FABRICATION OF

CAST RESTORATIONS:
Record most finite details
Duplicate unprepared surface areas beyond peripheries of

preparation
Dulplicate surface anatomy of adjacent & opposing teeth.
Duplicate surface anatomy of adjacent soft tissues.

21

TYPES OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS CHOOSEN

Reversible agar hydrocolloid

Irreversible Alginate hydrocolloid
Polysulfide rubber base
Condensation polymerization silicone rubber base
Additional polymerization silicone rubber base
Polyether rubber bases

22

3. PREPARATION OF MASTER DIE OR CAST

A die or cast is formed which is a duplicate of the intra oral structure.

(or)
The positive reproduction of the impression involving only the prepared tooth for
the processing of inlays or bridge structures.

A) REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL DIE MATERIAL

1.Accuracy & Dimensional stability .
2. Reproducibility of fine detail .
3. Producing a smooth , hard surface .
4. Strength , resistance to shearing force , edge strength & abrasion resistance .
5 . Ease of manipulation .

23

B) MOST COMMONLY USED MATERIALS ARE:

Certified Type IV improved stone with S.E. of 0.1% or less.
Certified Type V improved stone with S.E. of 0.3%.
Electroformed dies
Epoxy resins

ADVANTAGES:
Easy to use
Inexpensive
Compatible with most of the impression materials.

24

TYPE IV IMPROVED STONE

TYPE V IMPROVED
STONE

25

C) METHODS OF ALTERING DIE DIMENSIONS:

Addition of Accelerator or Retarder can be added to Type IV Stone to

reduce its S.E. < 0.1% & to reduce the diameter of the die.
GYPSUM DIES ARE SOMETIMES MODIFIED:
Make more abrasion resistant.
Change the dimensions of the dies.
Increase the refractoriness of the dies.

TO INCREASE THE ABRASION RESISTANCE:

Silver coating
Coat the surface with cyanoacrylate &
Adding the die hardener to the gypsum.

26

DIE HARDENERS

27

D) DIE LUBRICANTS:
To avoid sticking of wax pattern to die.

INDICATIONS:
- Easy removal of casting from die.

28

E) DIE SPACER:
To produce relief space for cement.
Film thickness- 25microns
Applied in several coats to within 0.5mm of the

preparation finish line to provide relief for the cement

luting agent.
MATERIALS USED:

Mostly resins are used.

Model paint
Colored nail polish
Thermoplastic polymers dissolved in
volatile solvents.
29

30

4. WAX PATTERN
PREPARATION
1st procedure in the casting of an inlay or crown for the lost-wax

process is the preparation of a dental wax pattern.

Direct Wax Technique Pattern made within the tooth.
Indirect Wax Technique Pattern prepared within a die.
INLAY WAX Specialized dental wax applied on the die surface for
preparation of direct & indirect patterns - Lost Wax Technique
Casting metals & Hot pressing of ceramics.
American National Standards Institute / American Dental

Association Sp No 4:
31

INLAY CASTING WAX

32

 Accurate reproduction of missing tooth structure.

Forms outline of the mold into which molten metal is poured.

A) COMPOSITION OF INLAY WAX:

Paraffin wax
Gum Dammar
Carnauba wax
Candelillia wax
Ceresin
Bees wax
Colouring agent

33

PARAFFIN WAX
-40-60%
Derived from high boiling fractions of petroleum
Complex mixture of hydrocarbons of methane series & Amorphous

or Microcrystalline phases .
Type I always paraffin- high melting point.

DISADVANTAGES:
Flakes when it is trimmed
No smooth, glossy surface.

34

GUM DAMMAR
Natural resin
Improves the smoothness in molding
Increased resistance to cracking and flaking
Increases toughness
Enhances smoothness and lusture of the surface.
35

CARNAUBA WAX
Fine powder leaves of tropical palms .
Hard
High melting point
Decreases the flow at oral temperature
Agreeable odour
Contributes to the glossiness of wax surface
Replacements of Carnauba wax :
Complex nitrogen derivatives of higher fatty acids
Esters of acids derived from montan wax .

36

CANDELILLA WAX
Partially or entirely replace carnauba wax.

CERESIN
Modify Toughness & Carving characteristics of the

wax.

37

B. DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF INLAY WAX:

Uniformity
Color contrast
Completely rigid and dimensionally stable at all times until eliminated
No Flakiness when bent and molded after softening
Wax pattern has solidifed carve wax at margins conform to surface of

the die.
ANSI/ADA Sp.No: 4
Melted wax when vapourised at 500C (932F) shall leave no residue in

Excess of 0.10% of the original weight of the specimen .

38

C) FLOW
Type I 37C (98F) is 1%
Type II 9%
Minimizes distortion of a well Carved pattern as it is withdrawn

from an adequately tapered cavity in the tooth .

Min 70%-Max 90% at 45C

39

D) THERMAL PROPERTIES
Low thermal conductivity More time is required to both heat them
uniformly and cool them to body temperature .
Thermal expansion data :

Maximal TE allowed Between

0.7% - Expansion with an inc. in temp. of 20 degrees from

37degrees.
0.35% - Contraction - Cooled from 37degrees - 25degrees
Average Linear coeffecient of Thermal expansion :
350 x 10-6/degreecentigrade
40

Thermal Expansion of Inlay Wax

41

INTERPRETATION & CLINICAL IMPORTANCE :

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE:
change in expansion rate occurs .

Temperature at which

- Rate of expansion increases abruptly above 35 degree (95

degrees F) .
- On completion of wax pattern , its removal from the tooth cavity and
Transfer to the lab bring about a reduction in temperature and
subsequent
thermal contraction .
A decrease of 12 degrees to 13degrees in temperature , from mouth
temperature to a room temperature of approx 24 degrees , causes a
0.4% linear contraction of the wax , or about o.04% change for each
degree change in temperature .
42

E. MANIPULATION
Methods of softening wax :
1. Best method Controlled temperature oven .
Why ? Since its a poor thermal conductor , a controlled heating
device for a prolonged period ensures uniform softening .
2 . Dry heat FLAME is preferred
- Twirled in the flame ? Always quick heating tends to melt the only
the superficial layer . So , this will bring inner surface out Vice
versa .
- Repeat till the wax is warm all over .
- Knead it and shape it the prepared cavity .
43

3 . Hot water bath Inclusion of water droplets .

4 . Swaging The die and the softened wax in the die are
mounted into a closed vessel containing water and a piston . When
pressed , hydrostatic pressure is evenly applied over the pattern
to adapt it to the cavity .

44

According to Marzouk:
1. Formulation of a wax pattern by carving Wax is overfilled &
carved.
2. Incremental build-up of the wax pattern
3. Direct wax pattern
4. Anatomic core wax pattern

45

F. WAXING INSTRUMENTS
Large increments

- Dr.Peter K Thomas carvers

1 . Wax addition - PKT No 1 & 2 .

Smaller increments

46

No 7 or 7 A Waxing spatula Large increments .

Technique :
- Heat the instrument .
- Touch the wax .
- Quickly reheat the shank

47

G. CARVING
Sharp instruments .
And never heat it
Use light pressure .
Always overfill and carve.
Hold the carvers partly over the remaining tooth structure and
complete the carving with this guide .

48

PKT No 4

NO 2 WARD
CARVERS

PKT No 5

NO1/2 & 3 HOLLENBACK

CARVERS

49

H. BURNISHING
- Slightly warm a blunt instrument and rub the wax , not as hot as it

melts .
- Less effective than carving but easier to control and leaves a
smoother surface ( esp. near margins ).
-Final polish with a silk cloth .
- In inaccessible areas , cotton wrapped around a toothpick .

50

PKT
No 3

Darby Perry Trimmer

(DPT ) No 6

51

I. REMOVAL OF WAX PATTERN

DIRECT PATTERN:
Sprue former Attached to the pattern Removed directly in line
with its path of withdrawl .
- Hook it with an explorer point and rotate it out of the cavity .

- In a MOD use a staple pin . Fasten it and insert a floss and hook it .
-Avoid finger contact it may produce a temperature rise .
INDIRECT PATTERNS:
- Lubricate the die
- Sheet of washed rubber dam increases friction & aids removal.
- Right hand fingers hold pattern & left hand die die pulled from
52
pattern by bending fingers of left hand.

J.WARPAGE OF WAX PATTERNS

- High tendency to warp or distort .

- Directly related to time of storage and temperature .
- Residual stresses developed in the pattern is associated with
forces used to shape the wax originally .

53

SOLUTION
- Softening the wax uniformly by heating at 50 degrees for 15 min.
- Warmed carving instruments and a warmed die .
- Adding wax in small amounts .
LOWER STORAGE TEMPERATURE :
- If a wax pattern is allowed to stand uninvested for longer than 30
Min Keep it in a refrigerator Distortion is less in lower
temperature.
- It should be warmed to room temperature before investing .

54

5. SPRUE FORMER
MOLD: A negative form in which an object is cast/shaped.
SPRUE: The mold channel through which molten metal flows into
the mold.
(or)
A Sprue is a channel in a refractory investment through mold through
which molten metal flows.

SPRUED WAX PATTERN:

Wax form consisting of the

prosthesis pattern with attached sprue network.

55

A) PURPOSE OF SPRUE FORMER:

Create a channel elimination of wax during burnout.
Channel ingress of molten alloy during casting.
Compensate for alloy shrinkage during soldification.

56

B) SELECTION OF SPRUE FORMER:

Strickland etal (1958) stated the importance of the type, shape,

location & direction other than the size of the sprue.

Selection of the diameter & length of sprue former depends on the

type & size of wax pattern, type of casting machine & type of flask
or casting ring used.

57

C. TYPE OF SPRUE
FORMER

Wax

Plastic/Resin

Metal sprues
58

- Perfectly cylindrical in shape& smooth surfaces.

-Influence the burn out technique

- Wax Most common
Metal Hollow metal sprue is more preferred .
-They hold less heat than a solid sprue , this avoids overheating.
- Filled with sticky wax.
Plastic
- Plastic sprues melt at a higher temperature than wax
- Thermal expansion of wax is around 5 times that of plastic

59

D) DIAMETER OF THE SPRUE FORMER

Diameter Same size as the thickest area of wax pattern.

Melt velocity is proportional to sprue diameter.

In conjunction with the pressure of the casting machine & density of the molten metal, controls the rate & flow of

the molten metal.

Larger diameter of the sprue Distortion.

Smaller diameter Solidify before the casting itself &

Localized Shrinkage Porosity.

Solution: Reservoir sprues are used to help overcome this problem.

Range : 10-18 gauge (2.6-1.0mm)

Atleast 1.7 mm unless the pattern is extremely small

2.5 mm Crowns

Large inlays 14 gauge & Small inlay -16 gauge

60

E. SPRUE POSITION
Prefer At the occlusal surface

(or)

Proximal wall or just below a nonfunctional cusp minimize

grinding of occlusal anatomy & contact areas.

Ideal Area: Point of greatest bulk in the pattern to avoid distorting

thin areas of wax during attachment to the pattern & permit

complete flow of alloy.

61

F. SPRUE ATTACHMENT
Asgar & Peyton (1959) Flaring should occur at Sprue/wax pattern

junction.
Flared for High density alloys.
Often restricted for lower density alloys.
Best for the molten alloy to flow from thick section to surrounding

thin areas (margins) rather than reverse.

Provide smooth flowing entry of gold into the mold and less

porosity in the casting minimizes risk for Turbulence.

All attachments , must therefore be TRUMPETED or FILLETED to

eliminate all sharp corners , angles and instrument marks .

62

- Acts in the same way as a reservoir

63

64

G. THE LENGTH OF THE SPRUE FORMER

- Should be long enough to properly position the pattern in the
casting ring within 6 mm of the end of the ring yet short
enough so that the molten alloy doesnt solidify before it fills
the mold .
( 6mm Gypsum bonded investments & 3-4mm Phosphate
bonded )
- Average sprue length Large inlay 4-5mm
Small inlay 3-4mm
- Short sprue Moves the pattern more away from the end of
the ring
65

Long sprues Solidify before the mold

shrinkage porosity .
WHY 6mm ?
Provides adequate bulk of investment to
withstand force of inrushing gold, yet
still allows gases to escape from the
end of the mold .

More than 6 mm
The gold will solidify before the
entrapped air can escape , resulting in
rounded margins , incomplete casting ,

66

H. SPRUE DIRECTION
Shd be directed away from any thin or delicate parts of pattern

molten metal may abrade or fracture investment in this area.

Shd not be attached at a right angle to a broad flat surface lead

of Turbulence within mold cavity & porosity.

67

 Sprued at 45 degree angle to proximal area satisfactory casting.

- Should always be directed towards the margins Favor the fine

margins of the wax patterns .
68

I. RESERVOIR
The reservoir is placed approximately 1.5mm from the pattern .
- Diameter should be greater than the bulkiest portion of the sprue .
Function Prevents localized shrinkage porosity .
- Because of the large mass of alloy and position in the heat centre of
the ring , the reservoir will remain molten to furnish liquid alloy into
the Mold as it solidifies .
- Resulting shrinkage will occur in the reservoir bar rather than the
restorations.
69

Reservoir

70

J. CRUCIBLE FORMER
Funnel shaped.
Rubber, metallic or plastic.
Connected to sprue in same was as sprue attached to mold.
Wax pattern with sprue former is attached to crucible former in a

special locking area.

71

SPRUING
DIRECT SPRUING

The sprue former provides a direct connection between the

pattern area and the sprue base/ crucible former.

When two thick portions of wax are separated by thin wax, then
2 separate sprues should be attached using direct spruing.

72

73

INDIRECT SPRUING
Indirect spruing uses the same basic principles of spruing. But the
only difference lies in attachment of 3 running horizontal bars.
The whole indirect sprue complex consist of 3 parts:

Manifold sprue.
Horizontal running bar.
Feeder sprue.

74

6. CASTING RING
-Investment material is poured in the
casting ring & allowed to set around
wax pattern.

CHOICE OF THE RING:

Rubber ring for HSE
Metal ring for TE

75

RING LESS CASTING SYSTEM

-Ringless Casting System is designed to increase productivity by
achieving consistently accurate results without the time-consuming
steps associated with the use of metal casting rings.
-Utilizes durable, reusable plastic rings that are tapered allowing for
unimpeded expansion of investment and easy removal of mold prior
to burnout.
-This allows for quick and easy divesting after casting while reducing
clean-up chores.
-Investment expansion is easier to control and not limited to the
thickness of a ring liner.
76

ROUND RINGLESS CASTING

POWERCAST RINGLESS
SYSTEM

77

CASTING RING LINERS

- The most commonly used technique to provide room for investment
expansion.
Triple fold function :
- Freedom to expand which would otherwise be restricted by the
ring .
- Helps to offset the contraction of the more rapidly cooling ring while
the gold alloy is being melted .
- In a wet liner certain amount of hygroscopic expansion is
afforded

78

Traditionally Asbestos ring liners

- Carcinogenic , biohazard .
NON ASBESTOS RING LINERS :
- Aluminium silicate ceramic liners Can retain water on the surface .
- Cellulose ( paper ) liners Better water absorption
Disadvantages: Burned away during casting , Difficult to secure in
place.
- Absorb materials much less than asbestos , and their
combination with some gypsum bonded investments will produce
fins
- Not compatible with phosphate bonded investments.
79

Implications : Liner affords greater expansion in the investment

- Absorbed water causes a semihygroscopic expansion
as it is drawn into the investment
80

- The use of

liner increases the normal setting expansion

compared with no liner.
- A thicker liner provides even greater semi hygroscopic expansion
and
also afford more unrestricted normal setting expansion .
LENGTH OF THE LINER :
Two concepts
When maximum expansion is required Flush with the open end
Smaller casting 3-6 mm (avg. 3.25mm) short of the end
1. Lock for the liner
2 . Uniform expansion
81

MANIPULATION OF A CASTING RING LINER

-Cut the liner to fit the inside diameter of the casting ring , no over
lap.
- Dry liner technique Dry liner is tacked in position with sticky wax .
-Wet liner technique Lined ring is immersed in water and excess
water is shaken away . ( Squeezing-uneven water removal and
expansion )
- Avoid touching or adapting with fingers reduce the cushioning
effect.
- Attach the liner firmly to the ring by wax to prevent it from riding
up during investing and inadvertently affecting the size of the
casting .

82

7. INVESTING
PROCEDURE

83

A. WETTING AGENTS or
DEBUBBLIZERS
Wax surfaces are not easily wetted by water
-If not covered by investment will develop surface irregularities in
casting .
- Wettax- mild soap solution.
-These agents reduce the surface tension of the wax pattern ,
promotes better wetting of the surface .

84

These agents decrease the contact angle of the liquid with

the wax surface.
Fig1 : 98degrees untreated surface
Fig2 : 61degrees treated surface more affinity for water
- investment being wetted with more
ease
Fig3 : 91degrees Rinsed with tap water and blotted dry

85

MANIPULATION
- Paint the debublizing solution on the pattern .
- Gentle air dry
- Dont soak or rinse in water
- Dont allow pooling in internal line angles of the pattern
.

86

B.

INVESTMENT MATERIALS

- A heat resistant or a refractory material used to form a

mold into which a metal or alloy is cast .
(OR) A molding material that surrounds the pattern &
subsequently hardens & forms the mold after the wax pattern
is eliminated.
-The operation of forming the mold is called Investing .
Types Gypsum bonded investments
Phosphate bonded investments
Ethyl silicate bonded investments

87

C. REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL INVESTMENT

MATERIAL:
Easily manipulated.
Sufficient strength at room temperature.
Stability at higher temperature
Sufficient expansion
Beneficial casting temperatures
Porosity
Smooth surface
Ease of divestment
Inexpensive.

88

GYPSUM BONDED
INVESTMENT
MATERIALS

89

D. PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENT

MATERIALS:
i) COMPOSITION:
REFRACTORY MATERIAL: SILICA - 60to 65% 4 allotropic
forms:
Quartz
Cristabolite
Tridymite
Fused quartz

90

BINDER: 30 to 35 %
Alpha hemihydrate form of gypsum OR Dental Stone.

MODIFIERS:

5%

Silica- Counterbalances gypsum shrinkage .

Chlorides Reduces shrinkage below 700C
Sodium , Potassium , Lithium chlorides
BORIC ACID Disintegrates during heating Roughened

Casting
91

ii) CLASSIFICATION:
Acc. To ADA Sp.no: 2- Casting Investments for dental gold alloys.
TYPE I Inlays & Crowns Thermal expansion
TYPEII Inlays & Crowns Hygroscopic expansion
TYPE III Partial dentures with gold alloys.

Can withstand temperature upto 700 degrees C.

92

iii) SETTING TIME:

Not <5mins & not > 25mins.
Modern inlay investments set initially in 9 to 18 mins.

iv) SETTING EXPANSION:

PURPOSE: Aid in enlarging the mold to compensate partially for
the casting shrinkage .
3 Types:

1. Normal Setting Expansion

2. Hygroscopic Setting Expansion
3. Thermal Expansion.
93

1. NORMAL SETTING EXPANSION- A mixture of silica and calcinated gypsum (calcium sulphate
hemihydrate) results in setting expansion greater than that of the
gypsum product used alone.
- Silica particles probably interfere with the intermeshing and
interlocking of the cystals as they form thrust of the crystals is
outward during growth increase expansion.

ANSI / ADA Specification No.2 for Type I investment permits a maximum

setting expansion in air of only 0.6%.

Setting expansion of such modern inlay investments is approx 0.4%.
It can be regulated by retarders and accelerators.

94

95

2. HYGROSCOPIC EXPANSION
When gypsum products are allowed to set in contact with water, it
leads to outward growth of crystals expansion which is greater in
magnitude than normal setting expansion.

ANSI / ADA Specification No.2 for Type II investments requires

Minimum setting expansion in water of 1.2%;
Maximum expansion permitted is 2.2%.

96

97

FACTORS AFECTING
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect
Effect

of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of

HSE

composition
W:P Ratio
Temperature
time of immersion
Spatulation
Shelf Life of Investment
Confinement
the Amount of Added water.

98

3. THERMAL EXPANSION:
Achieved by placing the mould in a furnace not greater than 700

C.
ANSI / ADA Specification No.2 requires that the thermal

expansion of
Type II investments be between 0% and 0.6% at 500 C.
For Type I investments, which rely principally on thermal

expansion for compensation, the thermal expansion must not be

less than 1% nor greater than 1.6%.

99

FACTORS AFFECTING THERMAL EXPANSION:

Effect of W:P ratio
Effect of Chemical modifiers

v) STRENGTH:
- Compressive strength for the inlay investments should not be less
than 2.4 MPa when tested 2 hrs after setting.

100

vi) THERMAL STABILITY:

Gypsum bonded investments decompose above 1200C.

CaSO4+ SiO2 CaSiO3 + SO3

CaSO4 + 4C CaS + 4CO3
CaSO4 + CaS 4CaO + 4SO2
Effects can be minimized by heat soaking the investment mold at the

casting temperature to allow the reaction to be completed before casting

commences.

vii) POROSITY:
The more gypsum crystals that are present in the set investment, the

less is the porosity.

The more uniform the particle size, the greater its porosity.

101

PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT

MATERIALS

102

E. PROPERTIES:
i) TYPES:
TYPE I For inlays, crowns and other fixed restorations.
TYPE II- For partial dentures and other cast, removable restorations.

ii) COMPOSITION:
POWDER- Ammonium diacid phosphate (NH 4 H2 PO4)

Silica Refractory
Magnesium oxide- reacts with phosphate ions.
LIQUID- In the form of silica sol in water.

iii) SETTING REACTION:

NH4 H2 PO4 + MgO NH4 MgPO4 + H2O
103

iv) SETTING EXPANSIONWith use of full strength liquid, about 0.4% attained.
Hygroscopic technique 0.6%- 0.8% can be realized.

THERMAL EXPANSION About 0.8% can be attained with a 50:50 mixture of

liquid and

water.
1% to 1.2% Use of undiluted liquid.
104

v) ADVANTAGES:
Easy to handle without breaking before they are placed in a

furnace for the wax burnout process and strong enough

withstand the impact and pressure of centrifugally cast molten
alloy.

Provide setting and thermal expansions high enough

compensate for the thermal contraction of cast metal prostheses or

porcelain veneers during cooling.

Ability to withstand the burnout process(~1 to 1.5 hrs)with

temperatures that reach 900C, and they can withstand

temperatures upto 1000 C for short periods of time.
105

vi) DISADVANTAGES :
When used with higher melting alloys, those with casting

temperatures greater than about 1,375 C, coupled with high mold

temperatures result in mold breakdown and rougher surfaces on
castings.

High strength of these investments can make divesting ( removal of

the casting from the investment) a difficult and tedious process.

When higher expansion is required, more silica liquid is used

results more dense and less porous mold incomplete castings if a

release for trapped gases is not provided.

106

ETHYL SILICATE BONDED

INVESTMENTS

107

F. PROPERTIES:
Silica is the binder.

SETTING EXPANSION (linear) Setting contractions of 0-0.4 %.

THERMAL EXPANSION- 1.5% to 1.8% can be attained between room temperature and
1000C to 1177 C.

108

ADVANTAGES :

Cast high temperature cobalt- chromium and nickel-chromium

alloys.
Good surface finishes, low distortion and high thermal expansion

(good fit).
Thin sections with fine detail.

109

DISADVANTAGES:
Added processing attention and the extra precaution needed in

handling the low strength fired molds.

The low strength and high thermal expansion require a more

precise burnout process and firing schedule to avoid cracking and

hence, destruction of a mold.

110

G. PREPARATION OF THE INVESTMENT

MIX
Mixing of the investment is done by:
Hand mixing
Vacuum mixing

111

HAND INVESTING
- Water is added first slow addition of powder to remove air from
powder.
-Hand spatulate the mix to incorporate the powder quickly.
- Cover of the bowlmechanical mixer mixed by hand.
- Coat the wax pattern with the investment
- Carefully coat the internal surface & the margin of the pattern

112

-Fill the ring slowly, starting from the bottom .

-Ring completely filled- leveled with top by edge of plaster spatula.
-Phosphate bonded investment slightly overfilled top is not
levelled off.
-Investment set 45 to 60 min.

113

VACUUM INVESTING
METHOD
-First hand spatulate the mix
-Attach the vacuum hose & mix
accordingly to the manufacturers
recommendations
-Invert the bowl & fill the ring
under vibration
-Remove the vacuum hose before
setting of the mixer
- Immediately clean the bowl &
mixing blade under running water

114

H.SETTING OF
INVESTMENT
It can be:
-In open air
-Hygroscopic technique
-Controlled water added technique

115

IN OPEN AIR

- Usually when High Heat TE technique is used.

- The investment is allowed to set in open air for 1 hour.

- The setting time is 1 hour for both GBI & PBI.

116

HYGROSCOPIC TECHNIQUE
- Once the casting ring is poured it is immersed into a water bath at
38 degrees temperature immediately.
- This can be altered by:
-W:P ratio

W:P HSE

-Time of immersion the delay HSE

-temp. of water HSE

117

CONTROLLED WATER ADDED TECHNIQUE

- The desired amount of expansion is retained by the amount of water

added.
- A soft flexible rubber ring is employed & invested normally.
- A specific amount of water is added on the top of investment &
allowed to set at room temperature.

118

8. WAX ELIMINATION OR BURN OUT

Elimination of the wax pattern from the mold of set investment

material.
Investment set min. 1 hr.
Ideally kept in oven when mold is wet.
Delayed for several hours kept in humidor.
Rubber crucible former removed.
Place the sprue hole down at first , for easy draining out of wax
Eliminated as a liquid .
Invert ring , for the oxygen in the oven atmosphere to circulate
more readily , to form gases rather than fine carbon which may
interfere with venting .

119

120

IDEAL TEMPERATURE RANGES

- 500 degrees for one hour . ( Craig )

-Gypsum bonded investments -468degrees for hygroscopic

technique 20mins
650degrees for thermal expansion
(or)
-Slow heating to 650-700 degrees in 60 minutes and held for 15 to
30 minutes at the upper temperature .
-Phosphate bonded investments Room temp. to max. 700 to
1030 degrees C depending on alloy used for 30 mins.
315C rapid heating held at the upper temperatures for 30
mins.
- General rule Add 5 minutes to the wax elimination for every121

HYGROSCOPIC LOW HEAT TECHNIQUE

Sources of compensation expansion
37degree water bath
Hygroscopic expansion by the warm water .
Thermal expansion in the oven
ADVANTAGES :
- Less mold degradation
- Cooler surface for smoother castings
- Direct placement at 500 degrees Large laboratories , time
factor .
122

HIGH HEAT THERMAL EXPANSION

Compensation expansion factor Thermal expansion produced by
the high heat burn out .
Accessory expansion factors :
- Setting of gypsum products .
- Water entering the wax pattern from liners and hence small
amount of Hygroscopic expansion .

123

TIME ALLOWABLE FOR

CASTING
Investment contracts thermally as it cools.
When thermal expansion / high heat technique

Investment loses heat after heated ring removed from

furnace and mold contracts.

124

9. CASTING CRUCIBLES
3 types of casting crucibles are available : Clay, Carbon and Quartz

(Zircon alumina).
Clay crucible are many of crown bridge alloys such as high noble-

alloy.
Carbon crucible high noble crown bridge , higher fusing , gold

based metal ceramic.

Quartz crucibles High fusing alloys of any type suited for alloys

that have a high melting range and are sensitive to carbon

contamination.
Palladium silver from metal ceramic copings.
Nickel/cobalt based alloys.

125

CARBON CRUCIBLES

126

127

128

10. METHODS OF MELTING THE

ALLOY
METHODS :
TORCH
Gas/Air (Most Common)
Gas/Oxygen PFM,Pd
Air /Acetylene

ELECTRICAL
Resistance
Induction
Direct Current Arc

Oxygen /Acetylene
129

TORCH MELTING
- The alloy is melted in a separate crucible by a torch flame and is
cast into the mold by centrifugal force.
-Temperature of gas-air flame is influenced by
i) Nature of the gas &
ii) Proportion of gas and air in the mixture.
-Considerable care Obtain a non-luminous brush flame, with
combustion zones clearly differentiated for melting the alloy .

130

ZONES OF A FLAME
Zone 1 Directly from the nozzle
Air and gas are mixed before
combustion .
No heat is present
Zone 2 Combustion zone
Gas & Air are partially burned
Color GREEN
131

Zone 3 :

Reducing zone

Hottest part of the flame.

Most effective zone for melting and should be kept constantly
over the alloy .
Color Blue
Zone 4 : Oxidizing zone
Combustion occurs with the oxygen in the air .
KEEP AWAY .

132

CRAIGS METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE EFFECTIVE

FLAME :
-Checking & interpreting the flame condition.
Apply the flame to a copper coin on a soldering block.

Bright & Clean

Dark , dull red colour

Oxidation and ineffective heating

Visual scenario practically : Morphology
Spongy
Small globules of fused metal appear
Color :
Spheroidal shape
- The molten alloy is light orange and tends to spin or follow the
flame when it is moved slightly.
133

134

AIR ACETYLENE & OXYGEN ACETYLENE

GAS
- These were designed mainly for Cobalt chromium base alloys
higher fusion temperatures
Advantage : Hottest flame hence faster burnout .

Disadvantages :
Excessive heat may distill lower melting components .
Overheating gases to dissolve in the casting
porosity
Highly technique sensitive

135

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE -- HEATED CASTING MACHINE

PRINCIPLE :
-

During Electrical melting of alloys heat energy is produced when

electric current is passed through a conductor depending upon the
voltage applied across it.

The alloy is melted electrically by a resistance heating .

Current is passed through a resistance heating conductor, and

automatic melting of the alloy occurs in a graphite or ceramic
crucible.
136

RESISTANCE HEATING

Resistance heat develops when flow of current was opposed by a

opposite power

e
p

e
e

p
p
137

 Advantages:
For metal ceramic prosthesis.
Base metals in trace amounts that tend to oxidize on

overheating.
Crucible located flush against casting ring.

Carbon crucibles should not be used in melting of:

High Pd
Pd-Ag
Ni-Cr
Co-Cr
138

139

INDUCTION MELTING MACHINE

The alloy is melted by an induction field that develops within a

crucible surrounded by water-cooled metal tubing.

140

VERTICAL CRUCIBLE POSITOINED

WITHIN INDUCTION COIL

WATER COOLED INDUCTON

COIL

141

142

 The electric induction furnace is a transformer in which an

alternating current flows through the primary winding coil and

generates a variable magnetic field in the location of the alloy to
be melted in a crucible

143

 Alloy reaches melting temp. forced into mold by air

pressure, or by vacuum.
It is more commonly used for melting base metal alloys,

more in jewelry .
Not been used for noble alloy casting as much as other
machines.

144

DIRECT CURRENT ARC MELTING MACHINE

Arc is produced between two electrodes: The alloy and the

water-cooled tungsten electrode generates heat.

cathode

D
----------------------------------------

B
C

---------------------------------------anode

145

 The temperature within the arc exceeds 4000oC and the alloy melts

very quickly.
This method has a high risk for over heating the alloy.

146

11. CASTING MACHINES

- Casting machines provide the means for transferring the molten

alloy from the crucible to the mold

147

OBJECTIVES OF CASTING

1) Alloy should be heated as qucikly as possible to a completely

molten condition (above liquidus temp.)
2) Oxidation of alloy prevented heating metal with a well adjusted
torch & small amount of flux on metal surface.
3) Adequate force applied to force the well-melted metal into the
mold.

148

TYPES
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE:
The alloy is melted in separate crucible by a torch flame and the
metal is cast into the mold by centrifugal force.

HIGH FREQUENCY CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

MACHINE:
The alloy is melted electrically by a resistance or induction furnace,
then cast into the mold centrifugally by motor or spring action.

VACUUM OR PRESSURE ASSISTED CASTING

MACHINE:

149

Acc. To William J. O Brien:

1. Centrifugal force type
2.

Pneumatic force (or) Air pressure type.

150

CASTING TECHNIQUES

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE TYPE

FORCE

Spring loaded
torch melting
machine

Induction
melting
machine

Electrical
resistance
heated casting
machine

PNEUMATIC

Electric arc vacuum

casting machine

151

ACCORDING TO SH SORATUR
1. Centrifugal casting machine
2. Steam Pressure machine-Solbrig machine
3. Air pressure machine Hereus
4. Spring wound Electrical resistance-melting
furnace-casting machine
5. Induction melting casting machine

152

VACUUM OR PRESSURE ASSISTED CASTING MACHINE

1ST evacuate the melting chamber to reduce oxidation.

Apply air pressure uniformly about the casting ring forcing molten

alloy into mold.

Vacuum is applied to the bottom of the mold.
Molten alloy is PUSHED & SUCKED into the mold by gravity or

vacuum.
Used for titanium and titanium alloys.

153

COMBILADOR CL-G 77

TITEC F210 M (OROTIG)

154

HIGH FREQUENCY CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

MACHINES

DEGUTRON

MEGAPULS 3000

155

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE

This machine utilize the centrifugal force which is defined as a

radial force radiating outward from the center of rotation of a

body, for casting.

156

157

- The machine works on broken-arm principle crucible is

attached to the broken-arm, which accelerates the effective initial
rotational speed of the crucible and casting ring thus increasing
the linear speed of the liquid casting alloy as it moves into and
through the mold.
- To counter the weight of the molten metal in the crucible and
casting ring, balancing arm is provided with the balancing
weights.

158

 The casting machine is given three (or) four clock wise turns and

locked in position with the pin.

159

 A clay\carbon crucible for the gold alloy being cast is placed in

the machine.
The torch is lit and adjusted.

160

PREHEATING CRUCIBLE

This preheating avoids excessive slag formation during casting.

161

- Alloy is placed on the inner sidewall of the crucible heated in the

reducing part of the flame until it is ready to cast.

- Properly adjusted torch develops adequate temp. 870-1000
degrees C.
-Alloy should be approx. 38C to 66C above liquidus temperature.
-The casting should be made when proper temperature is reached
- No more 30 secs should be allowed to elapse between the time the
ring is removed from the oven and the molten alloy is centrifuged
into the mold.
- When the alloy is molten,slide the crucible against the ring, sprinkle
flux over the metal.
162

163

 A reducing flux is used in melting the alloy (50% boric acid powder

and 50% fused borax ) it increases fluidity and reduces potential for
oxidation.

164

 When reducing zone is in contact-the surface of the gold is bright

and mirror like.

Oxidizing zone in contact-dull film or dross development.
When gold alloy is ready to cast it will be white hot, forming smooth
pool.

165

 Hold the casting arm so that

the pin drops away

Release the arm and rotate

till it comes to rest

Providing enough force to

cause the liquid-alloy to flow

into the mold.

166

Once the metal fills the mold there is a hydrostatic pressure gradient
developed along the length of the casting.
The pressure gradient from the tip of the casting(0.21 to 0.28 Mpa/
30 to 40 psi) to the button surface is quite sharp and parabolic in
function, coming to zero at the button surface.
Because of this gradient there is also a gradient in the heat transfer
rate, such that the greatest rate of heat transfer to the mold is at the
high pressure end of the gradient (i.e. the tip of the casting).
Therefore, solidification progresses from tip to the button side.
The arm should be stopped with brake lever only when it gets slowed
down naturally and the ring is removed with casting tongs.
167

168

QUENCHING
After the casting has solidified, the ring is removed and quenched

in water as soon as the button exhibits a dull-red glow.

Ring is quenched sprue open & button upwards 2/3rd length of
ring is dipped in water.

169

ADVANTAGES OF QUENCHING

1.Upward direction of sprue compensates casting shrinkage.

2. Metal alloy left in an annealed condition for burnishing, polishing,..
3. When water contacts the hot investment easy removal & soft
granular investment.

170

DIVESTING
Removal of Investment / Recovery of Casting.

End of the ring for about inch

Bulk finger pressure.

- Sprue is removed from the restoration using an

carborundum separating disk/ abrasive disk mounted in a
hand piece.

171

172

CLEANING &
FINISHING THE
CASTING
12.

173

PICKLING

Removal of oxide residues of carbon by heating the discoloured casting

in an acid.
SOLUTIONS USED: 50% HCL, PHOSPHORIC ACID, HYDROFLUORIC ACID
-Advantages of HCl:
Aids in removal of residual investment as well as oxide coating
-Disadvantages:
Likely to corrode laboratory metal furnishings
Fumes are health hazard

-Method of cleaning :
Place the casting in test tube or dish and pour acid over it
- Other methods: Heating the casting and then dropping into the pickling
174
solution

175

SAND BLASTING
Casting is held in an sand blasting

machine to clean the investment from the

surface.

The blasting materials used are:

Sand shells
Recycled Aluminium oxide with pressure

of 100psi
Garnet
Ultrasonic cleaners
Abrasive spray devices

176

 Finishing and polishing :

Brown or White Al2O3 stones are

used.
- Rag or felt wheels impregnated with abrasives are used in the initial
phase of this stage.
- Final polishing is achieved using various oxides of tin and
aluminium used in conjunction with a small rag or chamois buffing
wheel, followed with an iron oxide rouge.
- Residual traces of rosin or waxlike matrix from oxides Polishing
compound remover followed by a hot, soapy water rinse.

177

CASTING
DEFECTS

CAUSES OF CASTING DEFECTS

ACCORDING TO PHILLIPS
1. DISTORTION
2. SURFACE ROUGHNESS, IRREGULARITIES, DISCOLORATION
1.
a. Air bubbles
2.
b. Water film
3.
c. Rapid heating
4.
d. Under heating
5.
e. L/P ratio.
6.
f. Prolonged heating
7.
g.Temperature of alloy
8.
h.Casting pressure
9.
i.Composition of investment
10.
j. Foreign bodies
11.
k. Impact of molten alloy
12.
l. Pattern position
179
13. m. Carbon inclusions

3. POROSITY
I. Solidification defects
A. Localized shrinkage porosity
B. Microporosity
II. Trapped gases
A. Pinhole porosity
B. Gas inclusions
C. Subsurface porosity
III. Residual air

4. INCOMPLETE CASTING
180

 An unsuccessful casting results in considerable trouble and loss of

time.

Defects in castings can be avoided by strict observance of

procedures governed by certain fundamental rules and principles.

181

ACCORDING TO OBRIEN CASTING PROBLEMS CAN

BE CLASSIFIED :
A. GENERAL PROBLEMS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems

with
with
with
with
with
with
with
with

accuracy
distortion
bubbles
surface roughness
fins on the surface or margins
short and rounded margins
miscasting
pits
182

B. PROBLEMS WITH INTERNAL POROSITY

9. Problems with localized shrinkage porosity
10. Problems with subsurface porosity
11. Problems with microporosity

C. PROBLEMS WITH EXTERNAL POROSITY

12. Problems with back pressure porosity

183

1. DISTORTION

Any marked distortion of the casting is related to distortion of the

wax pattern
Setting and hygroscopic expansions of the investment may

produce a nonuniform expansion of the walls of the pattern.

The gingival margins are forced apart by the mold expansion,

whereas the solid occlusal bar of wax resists expansion during the
early stages of setting.

184

 Configuration of the pattern, the type of wax, and the thickness

influence the distortion.

Distortion increases as the thickness of the pattern decreases
Less the setting expansion of investment less the distortion
STUDY: Cast post made with an unlined metal casting ring may

exhibit anisotropic shrinkage which could result in distortion.

185

 Wax too hot- Excessive shrinkage results on cooling.

Wax too cool- The pattern undergoes stress release with change

in shape.
Insufficient pressure during waxing- The pattern distorts

because of thermal shrinkage.

Delayed investment- The sooner the investment is complete,

the less distortion

Heating pattern during spruing-

Create distortion.

Overheating casting during soldering procedure- This warps

or melts the margins.

186

TO AVOID DISTORTION
Appropriate selection of investing material with less setting

expansion

Invest the wax pattern as early as possible

Proper handling of the wax pattern

187

2. SURFACE ROUGHNESS, IRREGULARITIES,

AND DISCOLORATION
The surface of a dental casting should be an accurate reproduction

of the surface of the wax pattern from which it is made.

Excessive roughness or irregularities on the outer surface of the

casting necessitate additional finishing and polishing.

188

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
DEFINED: Relatively finely spaced surface imperfections whose height,
width, and direction establish the predominant surface pattern.

PROBLEMS WITH SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Water/powder ratio- A high ratio increases the roughness of the mold.
Excess wetting agent or salivary contamination - This may form a

film on the pattern surface and be reproduced on the casting surface.

Prolonged heating or overheating of the mold - may cause

investment disintegration, Roughness appears general and feels sharp.

Premature heating of casting investment- Wait a minimum of 45

minutes for burnout.

189

SURFACE IRREGULARITIES

Surface irregularities are isolated imperfections,

such as nodules, that are not characteristic of the entire

surface area.

Irregularities on the cavity surface prevent a proper

seating of an otherwise accurate casting.

190

a) AIR BUBBLES:

Small nodules on a casting are caused by air bubbles that

become attached to the pattern during or subsequent to the
investing procedure.

Nodules can sometimes be removed not in a critical area.

Nodules on margins or on internal surfaces removal of these

irregularities might alter fit of the casting
192

 Inadequate vacuum or ineffective painting procedureVacuum must have at least 26mm mercury for vacuum investing.
Water/powder ratio - Investment is too thick, it will not cover the

pattern completely.
Excessive vibration of the ring- Produces small nodules.

NODULE
S
193

194

TO AVOID AIR BUBBLES

Proper mixing of the investment if manual method is used

Use of a mechanical mixer with vibration both before and after

mixing

Vaccum investing technique is the best method.

Use of a wetting agent in a thin layer

195

b) WATER FILMS:
Wax is repellent to water and if the investment becomes separated

from the wax pattern in some manner, a water film may form
irregularly over the surface.
Appears as minute ridges or veins on the surface.
Too high L/P ratios .
Pattern is slightly moved, or vibrated after investing or if the

painting procedure does not result in an intimate contact of the196

TO AVOID WATER FILMS

Use of a wetting agent in a thin layer
Using Correct water - powder ratio

197

c) RAPID HEATING
Result in formation of fins or spines on the surface of the casting
Due to the flaking of the investment when water or steam pours

into the mold

A surge of steam or water may carry certain salts into the mold

that are left behind in the walls as the water evaporates

198

TO

FINS ON THE SURFACE OR MARGIN - DUE

Prolonged heating-

Cracks in the investment that radiate out

from the surface of the pattern.

Heating rate is too rapid- Cracks may appear in the

investment, caused by nonuniform heating of investment.

Water/powder ratio- A high ratio produces a weak investment

that may crack.

Excessive casting pressure- Metal impact may cause

investment fracture.

Cooling of the investment prior to casting- Cracks in the

investment

199

TO AVOID FINS OR SPINES

Gradual heating of the mold- atleast 60 min should elapse during

the heating of the investment- filled ring from room temperature to

700 C.

Greater the bulk of the investment, more slowly it should be

heated.

200

d) UNDERHEATING
Incomplete elimination of wax residues may occur if the heating
time is too short or if insufficient air is available in the furnace.
Low-temperature investment techniques
Voids or porosity may occur in the casting from the gases formed

when the hot alloy comes in contact with the carbon residues.
Casting may be covered with a tenacious carbon coating that is

virtually impossible to remove by pickling

201

e)LIQUID/POWDER RATIO

The amount of water and investment should be measured

accurately.

The higher the L/P ratio, the rougher the casting.

Too little water Investment thick and cannot be properly applied

to the pattern.

In vacuum investing, the air may not be sufficiently removed.

TO AVOID
202
Use the correct W/P ratio according to manufacturers instructions.

F)PROLONGED HEATING

High-heat casting technique a prolonged heating of mold at the

casting temperature disintegration of the gypsum-bonded
investment, and the walls of the mold are roughened.

Products of decomposition are sulfur compounds that may contaminate

the alloy to the extent that the surface texture is affected.

TO AVOID
Thermal expansion technique is employed mold heated to the casting

temperature and never higher.

The casting should be made immediately.

203

g) TEMPERATURE OF THE ALLOY

Alloy is heated to too high a temperature before casting, the

surface of the investment is likely to be attacked, and a surface

roughness may result.

In all probability, the alloy will not be overheated with a gas-air

torch when used with the gas supplied in most localities.

If other fuel is used, special care should be observed that the color

emitted by the molten gold alloy, for example, is no lighter than a

light orange.

204

h) CASTING PRESSURE

Too high a pressure during casting can produce a rough surface

on the casting

TO AVOID
a gauge pressure of 0.10 to 0.14 MPa in an air pressure casting

machine (or)
3 to 4 turns of spring in an average type of centrifugal casting

machine is sufficient for small castings.

205

i) COMPOSITION OF THE INVESTMENT

The ratio of the binder to the quartz influences the surface

texture of the casting.

A coarse silica causes a surface roughness.

If the investment meets ANSI/ADA specification n0.2, the

composition is not a factor for surface roughness

206

j) FOREIGN BODIES

When foreign substances get into the mold, a surface roughness may be
produced.

Rough crucible former with investment clinging bits of investment are carried

into the mold with the molten alloy

Carelessness in the removal of the sprue former

Sharp, well-defined deficiencies pieces of investment and bits of carbon from a

flux.

207

 Bright-appearing concavities Flux being carried into the mold

with the metal.

Surface discoloration and roughness can result from sulfur

contamination

The interaction of the molten alloy with sulfur produces a black or

grey layer on the surface of gold alloys that is brittle and does not
clean readily during pickling.

208

K) IMPACT OF MOLTEN ALLOY

Direction of sprue former molten gold alloy does not strike a
weak portion of the mold surface.

Molten alloy may fracture or abrade the mold surface on impact,

regardless of its bulk.

TO AVOID
Proper Spruing To prevent the impact of molten metal at an
angle of

90 degrees to investment surface.

209

l) PATTERN POSITION
If several patterns are invested in the same ring, it causes
breakdown or cracking of the investment if the spacing between
the patterns are less than 3mm.
B/c expansion of wax is much greater than that of the investment.

TO AVOID
Do not place several patterns too close together if invested in the

same ring
Avoid too many patterns in the same plane in the mold
210

m) CARBON INCLUSIONS

Carbon, as from a crucible, an improperly adjusted torch, or a

carbon-containing investment, can be absorbed by the alloy
during casting.

May lead to the formation of carbides or even create visible

carbon inclusions.

211

3. POROSITY

Porosity may occur both within the interior region of a casting

and on the external surface.

The latter is a factor in surface roughness, but also it is generally a

manifestation of internal porosity.

Not only does the internal porosity weaken the casting but if it also

extends to the surface, it may be a cause for discoloration.

If severe, it can cause plaque accumulation at the tooth-restoration

interface, and secondary caries may result.

Although the porosity in a casting cannot be prevented entirely, it

can be minimized by use of proper techniques.

212

POROSITIES IN METAL ALLOY CASTINGS MAY BE

CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
I. Solidification defects
A. Localized shrinkage porosity
B. Microporosity
II. Trapped gases
A. Pinhole porosity
B. Gas inclusions
C. Subsurface porosity
III. Residual air
213

LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

CAUSE:

Premature termination of the

flow of molten metal during solidification.
Linear contraction of noble metal alloys in changing from a

liquid to a solid is at least 1.25%.

SOLUTION: Continual feeding of molten metal through the

sprue make up for the shrinkage of metal volume during

solidification.

Generally occurs : Near the sprue-casting junction

Alloy or mold temperature is too low -Rapid solidification of

the alloy

214

TO AVOID LOCALIZED SHRINKAGE POROSITY

Using sprue of appropriate thickness
Attach the sprue to the thickest portion of the wax pattern
Flare the sprue at the point of attachment or placing a reservoir

close to the wax pattern

215

HOT SPOT:

The entering metal impinges onto the mold

surface at a point and creates a higher localized mold temperature.

A hot spot may retain a localized pool of molten metal after other
areas of the casting have solidified.
This in turn creates a shrinkage void, or suck-back porosity.

216

SUCK -BACK POROSITY: Hot spot causes the local region to

freeze last and results suck-back porosity.
Suck-back porosity often occurs at an occlusoaxial line angle or

incisoaxial line angle that is not well rounded.

217

TO AVOID SUCK BACK POROSITY

Flare the sprue at the point of attachment to the wax pattern

Reduce the mold melt temperature differential, that is lowering

the casting temperature by about 30C.

With a higher mold temperature, the difference in temperature

between the investment located around the sprue and the

investment in the area of the pulpal floor of the full crown is
decreased.

This decrease helps the molten alloy at the pulpal floor to solidify

before the alloy at the sprue

218

MICROPOROSITY
Occurs from solidification shrinkage but is generally present in

fine-grain alloy castings when the solidification is too rapid for the
microvoids to segregate to the liquid pool.

This premature solidification causes the porosity in the form of

small, irregular voids.

Such phenomena can occur from rapid solidification if the mold or

casting temperature is too low.

219

PINHOLE AND GAS INCLUSION

POROSITIES

Related to the entrapment of gas during solidification.

Both Spherical contourdifferent in size.

The gas inclusion porosities are usually much larger than pinhole

porosity.

220

PINHOLE/GAS INCLUSION
POROSITY

221

 Many metals dissolve or occlude gases while they are molten.

On solidification, the absorbed gases are expelled and pinhole

porosity results.

All castings certain amount of porosity

Porosity should be kept to a minimum adversely affect the

physical properties of the casting.

Porosity surface form of small pinpoint holes

Surface is polished, other pinholes appear.
Larger spherical porositiespoorly adjusted torch flame, or by use

of the mixing or oxidizing zones of the flame.

222

SUBSURFACE POROSITY

Simultaneous nucleation of solid grains and gas bubbles

at the first moment that the alloy freezes at the mold walls.
Short, thick sprue pin- Rapid entry of the alloy causes skin formation; the bulk

of alloy pulls away, forming subsurface porosity.

Alloy or mold temperature is too high - The first portion of gold to contact

the investment will solidify and form a thin skin. The alloy behind it shrinks during
solidification and pulls away, forming small porosities.

Controlled Rate of molten metal that enters the mold

223

ENTRAPPED-AIR POROSITY
- Occurs on the inner surface of the casting, sometimes referred to as
BACK-PRESSURE POROSITY large concave depressions
Caused by the inability of the air in the mold to escape through the

pores in the investment or by the pressure gradient that displaces

the air pocket toward the end of the investment.

224

 The incidence of entrapped increased by

- Use of the dense modern investments,

- By an increase in mold density produced by vacuum investing, and
- By the tendency for the mold to clog with residual carbon when the
low-heat technique is used.
Slow the venting of gases from the mold during casting.

225

According to William O Brien

Insufficient alloy mass- Air is entrapped in the solidifying alloy.

Insufficient turns on the casting machine - Denser the

investment, the greater the force needed to eliminate the gas

within the mold chamber.
Pattern is too for away from the end of the ring - Dense

investments and lower burnout temperatures

226

TO AVOID ENTRAPPED AIR POROSITY

Proper burnout
Adequate mold and casting temperature
High casting pressure
Proper L/P ratio

Thickness of the investment between the tip of the pattern and the

end of the ring not greater than 6mm.

227

4. INCOMPLETE CASTING
Partially complete casting, or perhaps no casting at all, is found.
The obvious cause is that the molten alloy has been prevented, in

some manner, from completely filling the mold.

Two factors that may inhibit the ingress of the liquefied alloy are

- Insufficient venting of the mold and

- High viscosity of the fused metal.

228

229

 Insufficient venting, is directly related to the back pressure exerted

by the air in the mold.

If the air cannot be vented quickly, the molten alloy does not fill the

mold before it solidifies.

In such a case, the magnitude of the casting pressure should be

suspected.
If insufficient casting pressure is used, the back pressure cannot be

overcome

230

 Furthermore,

the pressure should be applied for at least 4 sec.

The mold is filled and the alloy is solidified in 1 sec or less; yet it is quite

soft during the early stages.

Therefore the pressure should be maintained for a few seconds beyond this

point.
These failures are usually exemplified in rounded, incomplete margins.

ROUNDED, INCOMPLETE MARGINS

231

ROUNDED INCOMPLETE
MARGNS

232

 Second common cause for an incomplete casting is incomplete

elimination of wax residues from the mold.

If too many products of combustion remain in the mold, the pores

in the investment may become filled so that the air cannot be

vented completely.

If moisture or particles of wax remain, the contact of the molten

alloy with these foreign substances produces an explosion that may

produce sufficient back pressure to prevent the mold from being
filled.
233

According to William O Brien

Casting is nearly or entirely missing - The pattern detached

from the sprue pin, due to excessive vibration.

Pattern fractured during investing

Gold alloy was too cold during casting
Incomplete burnout
Sprue pin was too small -

If the sprue freezes before the alloy

fills the mold completely, incomplete casting results.

234

CONCLUSION

Thus, these are the various causes for the failure of the
castings and methods by which these defects can be
avoided, thereby producing a casting of good quality for
clinical success.

235

REFERENCES
1. PHILLIPSSCIENCE OF DENTAL MATERIALS11THEDITION
2. CRAIGS- RESTORATIVE DENTAL MATERIALS-12 TH
EDITION
3. OPERAIVE DENTISTRY MARZOUK
4. DENTAL MATERIALS & THEIR SELECTION
WILLIAM J.OBRIEN-3RD EDITION
5. CONTEMPORARY FIXED PROSTHODONTICSROSENSTIEL-4TH EDITION

236

6.NOTES ON DENTAL MATERIALS VK SUBBARAO

7. SYNOPSIS OF DENTAL MATERIALS S GOWRI
SHANKAR
8. TEXT BOOK OF SCIENCE OF DENTAL MATERIALS
9. ESSENTIALS OF DENTAL MATERIALS - SH.
SORATUR
10. PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE OF OPERATIVE
DENTISTRY CHARBENEAU 3RD EDITION.
237

11. JOURNAL OF PROSTHETIC DENTISTRY1987,57,362-368

12. JOURNAL OF PROSTHETIC DENTISTRY

-1989,61,418-424
13. DENTAL MATERIALS JOURNAL -1993 DEC 12 (2)
245-52.
14. DENTAL MATERIALS JOURNAL-2009 MAY 25 (5)
629-33.
238
15. JOURNAL OF PROSTHETIC DENTISTRY -2009 OCT

THANK YOU

239