CHAPTER 4:

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the solidification mechanisms?
What types of defects arise in solids?
Can the number and type of defects be varied
and controlled?
How do defects affect material properties?
Are defects undesirable?

Chapter 4 - 1

Imperfections in Solids
Solidification- result of casting of molten material
2 steps
Nuclei form
Nuclei grow to form crystals grain structure

Start with a molten material all liquid

nuclei

liquid

crystals growing

grain structure
Adapted from Fig.4.14 (b), Callister 7e.

Crystals grow until they meet each other

Chapter 4 - 2

Solidification: Nucleation Processes

Homogeneous nucleation
nuclei form in the bulk of liquid metal
requires supercooling (typically 80-300C max)

Heterogeneous nucleation
much easier since stable nucleus is already
present
Could be wall of mold or impurities in the liquid
phase
allows solidification with only 0.1-10C
supercooling

Chapter 4 - 3

Homogeneous Nucleation & Energy Effects

Surface Free Energy- destabilizes
the nuclei (it takes energy to make
an interface)
GS 4r 2
= surface tension

GT = Total Free Energy

= GS + GV
Volume (Bulk) Free Energy
stabilizes the nuclei (releases energy)
4
GV r 3 G

volume free energy

unit volume

r* = critical nucleus: nuclei < r* shrink; nuclei>r* grow (to reduce energy)
Adapted from Fig.10.2(b), Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 4

Solidification
2 Tm
r*
HS T

r* = critical radius
= surface free energy
Tm = melting temperature
HS = latent heat of solidification
T = Tm - T = supercooling

Note: HS = strong function of T

= weak function of T

r*

decreases as T increases
For typical T

r* ca. 100
Chapter 4 - 5

t10_01_pg318

Chapter 4 - 6

f10_06_pg320

Chapter 4 - 7

Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries
regions between crystals
transition from lattice of one
region to that of the other
slightly disordered
low density in grain
boundaries
high mobility
high diffusivity
high chemical reactivity

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 8

Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow
Columnar in
area with less
undercooling

Shell of
equiaxed grains
due to rapid
cooling (greater
T) near wall

Adapted from Fig. 4.12, Callister 7e.

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

Chapter 4 - 9

Imperfections in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
What are these imperfections?
Why are they important?
Many of the important properties of
materials are due to the presence of
imperfections.
Chapter 4 - 10

An ideal crystal can be described in terms

a three-dimensionally periodic
arrangement of points called lattice and an
atom or group of atoms associated with
each lattice point called motif:
Crystal = Lattice + Motif
However, there can be deviations from this
ideality.
These deviations are known as crystal defects.
Chapter 4 - 11

Is a lattice finite or infinite?

Is a crystal finite or infinite?

Free surface:
a 2D defect

Chapter 4 - 12

Surface Defects

High-resolution transmission electron

micrograph that shows single crystals of
(Ce0.5Zr0.5)O2;
this material is used in catalytic converters for
automobiles. Surface defects represented
schematically
in Figure 4.10 are noted on the crystals.

Chapter 4 - 13

Vacancy: A point defect

Chapter 4 - 14

Vacancy

scanning probe micrograph

(generated using a scanning-tunneling
microscope) that shows a (111)-type
surface plane* for silicon. The arrow
points to the location of a silicon
atom that was removed using a tungsten
nanotip probe. This site from
which an atom is missing is the surface
analogue of a vacancy defect
that is, a vacant lattice site within
the bulk material. Approximately
20,000,000. (Micrograph courtesy
of D. Huang, Stanford University.)

Chapter 4 - 15

Defects Dimensionality

Examples

Point

Vacancy

Line

Dislocation

Surface

Free surface,
Grain boundary

Chapter 4 - 16

Point Defects: vacancy

Fact
There may be vacant sites in a crystal
Surprising Fact
There must be a certain fraction of vacant
sites in a crystal in equilibrium.
Chapter 4 - 17

Vacancy
Crystal in equilibrium
Minimum Gibbs free energy G at
constant T and P
A certain concentration of vacancies
lowers the free energy of a crystal

Chapter 4 - 18

Gibbs Free Energy G

G involves two terms:
1. Enthalpy H =E+PV

E internal energy
P pressure
V volume

2. Entropy S =k ln W

k Boltzmann constant
W number of microstates

G=HTS

T Absolute temperature

Chapter 4 - 19

Vacancy increases H of the crystal due to

energy required to break bonds

H = n f
Chapter 4 - 20

Vacancy increases S of the crystal due to

configurational entropy

Chapter 4 - 21

Change in G of a crystal due to

vacancy
G
H
H n H f

G of a
perfect
crystal

G = H TS
neq

TS

S k[( N n) ln( N n) n ln n N ln N ]
Chapter 4 - 23

Types of Imperfections
Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms

Point defects

Dislocations

Line defects

Grain Boundaries

Area defects

Chapter 4 - 24

 Vacancies:

Point Defects

-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

distortion
of planes

selfinterstitial

Chapter 4 - 25

Defects in ionic solids

Frenkel
defect
Cation vacancy
+
cation interstitial

Schottky
defect
Cation vacancy
+
anion vacancy
Chapter 4 -

26

Equilibrium Concentration:
Point Defects
Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!
No. of defects
No. of potential
defect sites.

Activation energy

Q
Nv
v
exp
kT
N

Temperature

Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10 -23 J/atom-K)
(8.62 x 10 -5 eV/atom-K)
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site

Chapter 4 - 27

Measuring Activation Energy

We can get Qv from
an experiment.

Q
Nv
v
= exp
N
kT

Measure this...

Replot it...

Nv

ln

N
exponential
dependence!

defect concentration

Nv
N

slope
-Qv /k

1/T
Chapter 4 - 28

Estimating Vacancy Concentration

Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1 m 3 of Cu at 1000C.
Given:
= 8.4 g/cm 3
A Cu = 63.5 g/mol
Qv = 0.9 eV/atom NA = 6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol

Q
Nv
v
exp
kT
N
NA
For 1 m , N = x
A Cu
3

0.9 eV/atom

= 2.7 x 10-4

1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
x 1 m3 = 8.0 x 1028 sites

Answer:
Nv = (2.7 x 10-4)(8.0 x 1028) sites = 2.2 x 1025 vacancies
Chapter 4 - 29

Observing Equilibrium Vacancy Conc.

Low energy electron

microscope view of
a (110) surface of NiAl.
Increasing T causes
surface island of
atoms to grow.
Why? The equil. vacancy

conc. increases via atom

motion from the crystal
to the surface, where
they join the island.
Island grows/shrinks to maintain
equil. vancancy conc. in the bulk.

Reprinted with permission from Nature (K.F. McCarty,

J.A. Nobel, and N.C. Bartelt, "Vacancies in
Solids and the Stability of Surface Morphology",
Nature, Vol. 412, pp. 622-625 (2001). Image is
5.75 m by 5.75 m.) Copyright (2001) Macmillan
Publishers, Ltd.

Chapter 4 - 30

Point Defects in Alloys

Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):

Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR
Substitutional solid soln.
(e.g., Cu in Ni)

Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., C in Fe)

Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new

phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.
Chapter 4 - 31

Imperfections in Solids
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
W. Hume Rothery rule
1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
2. Proximity in periodic table
i.e., similar electronegativities

3. Same crystal structure for pure metals

4. Valency
All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower
valency

Chapter 4 - 32

Imperfections in Solids
Application of HumeRothery rules Solid
Solutions
Element
Atomic Crystal
ElectroRadius Structure
(nm)

1. Would you predict

more Al or Ag
to dissolve in Zn?
2. More Zn or Al
in Cu?

Cu
C
H
O
Ag
Al
Co
Cr
Fe
Ni
Pd
Zn

0.1278
0.071
0.046
0.060
0.1445
0.1431
0.1253
0.1249
0.1241
0.1246
0.1376
0.1332

Valence

negativity

FCC

1.9

+2

FCC
FCC
HCP
BCC
BCC
FCC
FCC
HCP

1.9
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.8
2.2
1.6

+1
+3
+2
+3
+2
+2
+2
+2

Table on p. 106, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 33

Imperfections in Solids
Specification of composition
weight percent

m1
C1
x 100
m1 m2

m1 = mass of component 1

atom percent

n m1
C
x 100
n m1 n m 2
'
1

nm1 = number of moles of component 1

Chapter 4 - 34

Line Defects
Dislocations
Chapter 4 - 35

Missing half plane A Defect

Chapter 4 - 36

An extra half plane

or a missing half
Chapter plane
4 - 37

What kind of
defect is this?
A line defect?
Or a planar
defect?

Chapter 4 - 38

Extra half plane

No extra plane!

Chapter 4 - 39

Missing plane

No missing plane!!!
Chapter 4 - 40

An extra half plane

Edge
Dislocation

or a missing half
Chapter plane
4 - 41

ab I f a
cr ru p
ys p t l a n
ta l y e
l w in en
e si d d s
ha e
de ve a
fe a
ct
.

g
n
i
d t
n
e ec
y
f
l
e
t
p ad
u
r t
b
a no
f
o
s
i
le n e
o
h pl a
w
e
n
e
a
l
p
e
h
Th
t
a
f
o
s
a
e
g
d
d
e
e
r
e
e
d
t
h
i
c
t
s
e
n
y
f
o
e
c
d
Onl
e
b
n
a
c

This is a line defect called an

EDGE DISLOCATION
Chapter 4 - 42

Callister FIGURE 4.3

The atom positions around an edge
dislocation; extra half-plane of atoms
shown in perspective. (Adapted from
A. G. Guy, Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1976, p. 153.)

Chapter 4 - 43

Slip
Dislocations:

are line defects,

slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

before deformation

after tensile elongation

slip steps

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 44

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

Chapter 4 - 45

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

crss

crss is
critical
resolved
shear stress
on the slip

crss

plane in the
Chapter 4
- 46
direction
of

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

crss

crss is
critical
resolved
shear stress
on the slip

crss

plane in the
Chapter 4
- 47
direction
of

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

crss

crss is
critical
resolved
shear stress
on the slip

crss

plane in the
Chapter 4
- 48
direction
of

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

crss

crss is
critical
resolved
shear stress
on the slip

crss

plane in the
Chapter 4
- 49
direction
of

Glide of
an Edge
Dislocation

crss

A surface
step of b
is created
if a
dislocation
sweeps
over the
entire slip
plane

Surface
step, not a
dislocation

crss

Chapter 4 - 50

Figure 4.6 A transmission electron

micrograph of a titanium alloy in which the
dark lines are dislocations.
(Courtesy of M. R. Plichta, Michigan
Technological University.)

Chapter 4 - 51

Slip plane

t
b

no slip
dislocation

slip

Dislocation: slip/no
slip boundary
b: Burgers vector
magnitude and
direction of the slip
t: unit vector
tangent to the
dislocation line

Chapter 4 - 52

Burgers vector

Johannes Martinus
BURGERS

Burgers vector

Burgers vector
Chapter 4 - 53

Dislocation Line:
A dislocation line is the boundary between
slip and no slip regions of a crystal
Burgers vector:
The magnitude and the direction of the
slip is represented by a vector b called the
Burgers vector,
Line vector
A unit vector t tangent to the dislocation
line is called a tangent vector or the line
vector.
Chapter 4 - 54

2 3

Burgers vector
b

Slip plane

slip

no slip

boundary = edge dislocation

Chapter 4 - 55

In general, there can be any angle

between the Burgers vector b (magnitude
and the direction of slip) and the line
vector t (unit vector tangent to the
dislocation line)
b t Edge dislocation
b t Screw dislocation
btb t Mixed dislocation
Chapter 4 - 56

ew
r
Sc

tio
a
c
o
l
is

e
n
i
nL

b || t
b

Chapter 4 - 57

Screw Dislocation

Chapter 4 - 58

If b || t

Then parallel planes to the dislocation line

lose their distinct identity and become one
continuous spiral ramp

Hence the name SCREW DISLOCATION

Chapter 4 - 59

Positive

Edge
Dislocation

Screw
Dislocation

Extra half
plane above
the slip plane

Left-handed
spiral ramp
b parallel to t

Negative
Extra half
plane below
the slip plane

Right-handed
spiral ramp
b parallel to t
Chapter 4 - 60

Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations

Mixed

Edge
Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister 7e.

Screw
Chapter 4 - 61

S
F

10

11

12

13

14

15

16
1

A closed
Burgers
Circuit in an
ideal crystal

7
6
5
4

4
5
6
7

2
1

9
16

15 14

13

12

11

10

Chapter 4 - 62

F b
9

10 11

12 13

14

15

16

1
2

Map the same

Burgers circuit on a
real crystal

7
6
5
4

4
5
6
7

2
1

9
16 15

14

13

12

11

10

Chapter 4 - 63

b is a lattice translation

b
Surface defect

If b is not a complete lattice translation then a surface

defect will be created along with the line defect.
Chapter 4 - 64

Elastic strain field associated with an

edge dislocation
N+1 planes
Compression
Above the slip plane

Tension
Below the slip plane

N planes
Chapter 4 - 65

Line energy of a dislocation

Elastic energy per unit length of a
dislocation line

1
2
E b
2

Shear modulus of the crystal

Length of the Burgers vector

Unit: J m1

Chapter 4 - 66

Energy of a dislocation line

is proportional to b2.

Thus dislocations with

short b are preferred.

b is a lattice translation

b is the shortest lattice

translation
Chapter 4 - 67

b is the shortest lattice

translation
SC

100

BCC

1
111
2

FCC

1
110
2

NaCl

1
110
2

CsCl

100

Chapter 4 - 68

A dislocation line cannot end

abruptly inside a crystal
Slip plane

Slip plane

no slip

dislocation

slip

Dislocation:
slip/no slip
boundary
slip

no slip

Chapter 4 - 69

A dislocation line cannot end

abruptly inside a crystal
T

M
F

It can end on a free surface

Chapter 4 - 70

Dislocation can end on a grain boundary

Grain
Boundary

Grain 1

Grain 2
Chapter 4 - 71

The line vector

t is always
tangent to the
dislocation line

A dislocation loop
t

b t

t b

slip

No slip

The Burgers
vector b is
constant along a
dislocation line
Chapter 4 - 72

Dislocation node
b2
t
Node

t
t

b1

b3
b2
b1

b3

b1 + b2 + b3 = 0
Chapter 4 - 73

A dislocation line cannot end

abruptly inside a crystal
It can end on
Free surfaces
Grain boundaries
On other dislocations at a point called a node
On itself forming a loop

Chapter 4 - 74

Dislocations & Crystal Structures

Structure: close-packed
planes & directions
are preferred.

view onto two

close-packed
planes.

close-packed plane (bottom)

close-packed directions
close-packed plane (top)

Comparison among crystal structures:

FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none

Specimens that
were tensile
tested.

Mg (HCP)
tensile direction

Al (FCC)
Chapter 4 - 75

Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities

Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest linear

densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
Chapter 4 - 76

Dislocations & Materials Classes

Metals: Disl. mvt easier.
-non-directional bonding
-close-packed directions
for slip.
electron cloud

+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +

ion cores

Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Movement
difficult.
-directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

Movement difficult.
-need to avoid ++ and - neighbors.

Chapter 4 - 77

Surface
Defects
Chapter 4 - 78

External

Surface Defects
Internal

Free surface Grain boundary

Stacking fault

Same
phase

Twin boundary
Interphase
boundary
Domain Wall

Different
phases
Chapter 4 - 79

Surface energy is anisotropic

Surface energy depends on the
orientation, i.e., the Miller indices of
the free surafce
nA, nB are different for different
surfaces

Chapter 4 - 80

Internal surface: grain boundary

Grain
Boundary

Grain 1

Grain 2

A grain boundary is a boundary between two

regions of identical crystal structure but
Chapter 4 - 81
different orientation

Grain Boundaries and Dislocations

The atoms are bonded less regularly along
a grain boundary (e.g., bond angles
are longer), and consequently, there is an
interfacial or grain boundary energy similar
to the surface energy.
The magnitude of this energy is a function
of the degree of misorientation, being
larger for high-angle boundaries.
Impurity atoms often preferentially
segregate along these boundaries because
of their higher energy state.
The total interfacial energy is lower in large
or coarse-grained materials than in finegrained ones, since there is less total
boundary area in the former.

Chapter 4 - 82

Twin Boundary and Twinning

A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across

which there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms
on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-image
positions of the atoms on the other side

Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from

applied mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins) (BCC &
HCP metals), and also during annealing heat treatments
following deformation (annealing twins) (FCC metals).

Twinning occurs on definite crystallographic planes and in a

specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure.
Chapter 4 - 83

Deformation by Twinning

Chapter 4 - 84

Difference between Slip and Twinning

Chapter 4 - 85

Difference Between Slip and Twinning

Slip occurs in distinct atomic spacing multiples, whereas the

atomic displacement for twinning is less than the interatomic separation, usually proportional to their distances
from the twin plane.
for slip, the crystallographic orientation above and below the
slip plane is the same both before and after the
deformation; for twinning, there will be a reorientation
across the twin plane.
The amount of bulk plastic deformation from twinning is
normally small relative to that resulting from slip; twinning
may however place new slip systems in orientations that
are favorable relative to the stress axis such that the slip
process can now take place.
Chapter 4 - 86

Planar Defects in Solids

One case is a twin boundary (plane)
Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin plane.

Stacking faults
For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
Ex: ABCABABC

Adapted from Fig. 4.9, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 87

Galvanized surface with macroscopic

crystalline features. Twin boundaries are
visible as striations within each crystallite most
prominently in the bottom left and top-right.

Twinned pyrite crystal group

Chapter 4 - 88

Optical Microscopy,
Experiment

Photomicrograph an iron
chromium alloy. 100X.

Callister, Fig. 4.12

Chapter 4 - 89

Concept Check!

The surface energy of a single crystal depends on crystallographic

orientation. Does this surface energy increase or decrease with an
increase in planar density.Why?

The surface energy of a single crystal depends on the planar density

(i.e., degree of atomic packing) of the exposed surface plane because
of the number of unsatisfied bonds. As the planar density increases, the
number of nearest atoms in the plane increases, which results in an
increase in the number of satisfied atomic bonds in the plane, and a
decrease in the number of unsatisfied bonds. Since the number of
unsatisfied bonds diminishes, so also does the surface energy
decrease. (That is, surface energy decreases with an increase in planar
density)

Chapter 4 - 90

Microscopic Examination
Crystallites (grains) and grain boundaries.
Vary considerably in size. Can be quite large
ex: Large single crystal of quartz or diamond or Si
ex: Aluminum light post - see the individual grains

Crystallites (grains) can be quite small (mm

or less) necessary to observe with a
microscope.

Photograph of xyz positioning

microstage,

Quartz Single Crystal

Chapter 4 - 91

Optical Microscopy
Useful up to 2000X magnification.
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystallographic
orientation.

crystallographic planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.13(b) and (c), Callister
7e. (Fig. 4.13(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)
0.75mm
Chapter 4 - 92

Polarized Light
metallographic scopes often use polarized
light to increase contrast
Also used for transparent samples such as
polymers

Chapter 4 - 93

Optical Microscopy
Grain boundaries...
are imperfections,
are more susceptible
to etching,
may be revealed as
dark lines,
change in crystal
orientation across
boundary.

polished surface

(a)

surface groove
grain boundary

ASTM grain
size number

N = 2n-1
number of grains/in2
at 100x
magnification

Fe-Cr alloy

Adapted from Fig. 4.14(a)

and (b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C. Brady,
the National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC
[now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

(b)
Chapter 4 - 94

Concept Check
Does the grain size number (n of Equation
4.16) increase or decrease with decreasing
grain size? Why?
Answer: Taking logarithms of Equation 4.16
and then rearranging such that the grain size
number n is the dependent variable leads to
the expression!
n = 1 + log N / log 2
In other words, the value of n increases with
decreasing grain size.
Chapter 4 -

Electron Microscopy
Optical resolution ca. 10-7 m = 0.1 m = 100 nm
For higher resolution need higher frequency
X-Rays? Difficult to focus.
Electrons
wavelengths ca. 3 pm (10-12m ~0.003 nm)
(Magnification - 1,000,000X)

Atomic resolution possible

Electron beam focused by magnetic lenses.

Chapter 4 - 96

Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 97

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Pollen

Ceramic with pores

Seed

Space Shuttle Tile

Lead-Tin Solder
Fracture Surface

Chapter 4 - 98

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Ants Head

Dislocations in Ti
Alloy at 51,450X

Zirconia/Alumina Interface

Chapter 4 - 99

Scanning Probe Microscopy

Neither light nor electrons are used to form an image!

The microscope generates a topographical map, on an atomic
scale, that is a representation of the surface features and
characteristics of the specimen.
Examination on the nanometer scale is possible, magnifications
as high as109x are possible;
Three-dimensional magnified images are generated that provide
topographical information about features of interest.
Some SPMs may be operated in a variety of environments (e.g.,
vacuum, air,liquid); thus, a particular specimen may be
examined in its most suitable environment.

Chapter 4 - 100

Quantum Tunneling

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

Chapter 4 -101

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

(STM)

http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/microscopes/scanning/stm.html

Chapter 4 -102

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

(STM)
Atoms can be arranged and imaged!
Photos produced from
the work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M.
Eigler. Reprinted with
permission from
International Business
Machines Corporation,
copyright 1995.

Carbon monoxide
molecules arranged
on a platinum (111)
surface.

Iron atoms arranged

on a copper (111)
surface. These Kanji
characters represent
the word atom.

Chapter 4 -103

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

(STM)

(110) Surface of Ni

2 point defects on (111)

plane of Cu lattice

Chapter 4 -104

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

(STM)

Fe atoms on a Cu surface

Fe atoms on Cu surface in shape of a stadium

Cu surface seen under a STM

Chapter 4 -105

Overview of Microscopic Techniques

Chapter 4 -106

Summary
Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.
The number and type of defects can be varied
and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)
Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain
boundaries control crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)

Chapter 4 -107