Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Lecture
4 in time-invariant capacitors.
Energy stored
Energy stored in time-invariant inductors.
Physical components versus circuit elements.
The current i(t) entering the port is called the port current,
current and
the voltage v(t) across the port is called the port voltage.
voltage
It is a fundamental fact of physics that the instantaneous
power entering the one-port is equal to the product of the port
voltage and the port current provided the reference directions
of the port voltage and the port current are associated
reference directions as indicated in Fig. 4.1.
Let p(t) denote the instantaneous power in watts delivered by
the generator to the one-port at time t. Then
(4.1)
p (t ) v(t )i (t )
Where v is in volts and i is in amperes. Since the energy (in
joules) is the integral of power (in watts), it is follows that the
energy delivered by the generator to the one-port from t0 to
time t is
t
t
(4.2)
W (t0 , t ) p (t )dt v(t )i (t )dt
t0
t0
A linear resistor is active if and only if R(t) is negative for some tim
dq
i (t )
dt
(4.3)
v v(q )
(4.4)
v()
Let the capacitor characteristic be described by the function
The energy delivered by the generator to the capacitor from
time t0 to t is then
t
q (t )
t0
q ( t0 )
v(q1 )dq1
(4.5)
EE (t )
i(t)
0
v(q )dq
Characteristicv v( q )
Fig. 4.3. The shaded area gives the energy stored at time t in the capacitor
7
q Cv
2
q
(t ) 1 2
1
E E (t ) v(q1 )dq1 2
2 Cv (t )
C
0
(4.8)
(t )
i( ) d
(4.11)
( t0 )
(i(t), (t))
(t)
0
i(t)
Characteristici i( q )
Fig. 4.4. The shaded area gives the energy stored at time t in the inductor
10
Li
E M (t )
2
1
(t ) 1 2
1
d1 2
2 Li (t )
L
L
(4.14)
11
E E (t ) 12 Cv 2 (t )
energy
density
Energy stored in an inductor .
dielectric
-
uelectric
E
-
1
0 E 2
2
E M (t ) 12 Li 2 (t )
energy
density ...
umagnetic
1 B2
2 0
13
General Review
Electrostatics
motion of q in external E-field
E-field generated by qi
Magnetostatics
motion of q and I in external B-field
B-field generated by I
Electrodynamics
time dependent B-field generates E-field
AC circuits, inductors, transformers, etc.
time dependent E-field generates B-field
electromagnetic radiation - light!
14
Energy Storage in
Capacitors
1
dv
w (t ) vi d v C
d Cv dv Cv (t )
C
where v(-) = 0
Since wc(t) 0, the capacitor is a passive element
The ideal capacitor does not dissipate any energy
The net energy supplied to a capacitor is stored in the
electric field and can be fully recovered
15
Inductor
An inductor is a two-terminal device that consists of a
_
N
16
Induction Effects
Faradays Law (Lenz Law)
Faraday's
Law
Define the flux of the magnetic field through an open surface as:
B B dS
dS
Faraday's Law:
The emf induced in a circuit is determined by the time
rate of change of the magnetic flux through that circuit.
dB
dt
So what is
this emf??
Electro-Motive Force or
emf time
E dl
Note: The loop does not have to be a wirethe emf exists even in vacuum!
When we put a wire there, the electrons respond to the emf current.19
Lenz's
Lenz's Law:
Law
The induced current
will appear in such a direction that it
opposes the change in flux that produced it.
B
v
B
v
Preflight 16:
A copper loop is placed in a non-uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic field does not
change in time. You are looking from the right.
dB
dt
When the loop is stationary: the flux through the ring does not change!!!
d/dt = 0 there is no emf induced and no current.
When the loop is moving to the right: the magnetic field at the position of the loop is
increasing in magnitude. |d/dt| > 0
there is an emf induced and a current flows through the ring.
Use Lenz Law to determine the direction: The induced emf (current) opposes the
change!
The induced current creates a B field at the ring which opposes the increasing external
B field.
22
Preflight 16:
5) The ring is moving to the right. The magnetic field is uniform and
constant in time. You are looking from right to left. What is the
induced current?
a) zero
b) clockwise
c) counter-clockwise
6) The ring is stationary. The magnetic field is decreasing in time.
What is the induced current?
a) zero
b) clockwise
c) counter-clockwise
23
When B is decreasing:
dB
dt
24
(a) ccw
(b) cw
(a) ccw
(b) cw
XXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXX
X X X X X X X vX X X X X
XXXXXXXXXXXX
x
1A
2A
(a) ccw
(b) cw
XXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXX
X X X X X X X vX X X X X
XXXXXXXXXXXX
x
(a) ccw
(b) cw
Demo E-M
Cannon
Connect solenoid to a source of
alternating voltage.
The flux through the area to
axis of solenoid therefore
changes in time.
v
~
side view
F B
F
B
top view
v
~
side view
F B
F
B
top view
3030
Preflight 16:
8) Will the acceleration of the ring be any different, than it would be under
gravity alone?
a) a > g
b) a = g
c) a < g
31
32
3A
Ring 1
Ring 2
(a) F2 < F1
3B
(b) F2 = F1
(c) F2 > F1
(a) F2 < F1
(b) F2 = F1
(c) F2 > F1
3A
Ring 1
Ring 2
(a) F2 < F1
(b) F2 = F1
(c) F2 > F1
The key here is to realize exactly how the force on the ring is
produced.
A force is exerted on the ring because a current is flowing in
the ring and the ring is located in a magnetic field with a
component perpendicular to the current.
An emf is induced in Ring 2 equal to that of Ring 1, but NO
CURRENT is induced in Ring 2 because of the slit!
Therefore, there is NO force on Ring 2!
For this act, we will predict the results of variants of the electromagnetic
cannon demo which you just observed.
3B
Ring 1
Ring 2
(a) F2 < F1
(b) F2 = F1
(c) F2 > F1
AC Generator
Dynamic Microphones
(E.g., some telephones)
Sound
oscillating
oscillating
oscillating
oscillating
oscillating
pressure waves
[diaphragm + coil]
magnetic flux
induced emf
current in wire
36
37
Repels magnet
Levitates train
S
N
rails
Maglev
trains
today can travel up to 310 mph
eddy
current
Twice the speed of Amtraks fastest conventional train!
38
Summa
ry(Lenzs Law)
Faradays Law
dt
B/t E
B/t E
W qE dl
W
E dl
dB
E dl dt
E
xxxxxxxxxx
E
xxxxxxxxxx
r
xxxxxxxxxx
B
xxxxxxxxxx
E
x x x x x x x xEx x
Rate of change of
flux through loop
E dl 0
42
Preflight 16:
Buzz Tesla claims he can make an electric generator for the cost of one
penny. Yeah right! his friends exclaim. Buzz takes a penny out of his
pocket, sets the coin on its side, and flicks it causing the coin to spin across
the table. Buzz claims there is electric current inside the coin, because the
flux through the coin from the Earths magnetic field is changing.
44
45
Parasitic Effect
One the most noticeable phenomenon in a physical inductor
in addition to its magnetic field when current passes
through, its dissipation. The wiring of a physical inductor has
a resistance that may have substantial effects in some
circuits. Thus, in modeling a physical inductor we often use a
series connection of an inductor and resistor.
46
Summary
Circuit elements are ideal models that are used to analyze
and design circuits. Physical components can be approximately
modeled by circuit elements.
Each two-terminal element is defined by a characteristic, that
is by a curve drawn in an appropriate plan. Each element can
be subjected to a four-way classification according to its
linearity and its time invariance.
A resistor is characterized, for each t, by a curve in the iv (or
vi)
vi plane.
47