Gamma Ray Spectroscopy

Gamma spectroscopy basics

Photon interacts, produces burst of electrons
Applied bias voltage sweeps electrons from
crystal
Current produced by electrons forms signal pulse
Pulse size is increased with a preamplifier
Pulse is further intensified and shaped with
amplifier
Pulse intensity is converted into numerical value
using ADC
Numerical values are sent to MCA

Single-Channel Analyzer
Digital
Recorder

Scalar
Detector
PreAmp
(Crystal &
Photomultiplier)
High
Voltage

Linear
Amplifier

Pulse
Height
Analyzer
Count
Rate
Meter
Strip
Chart
Recorder

Multi-Channel Analyzer
Detector
PreAmp
(Crystal &
Photomultiplier)

Linear
Amplifier

Analog to
Digital
Converter

Address
Scalar

Memory

High
Voltage

Readout

Display

Idealized Gamma-Ray
Spectrum in NaI
theoretical
Counts
per
Energy
Interval
Actual

Energy

Eo
5

Components of Spectrum
Counts
per
Energy
Interval

Backscatter
Peak

X-ray
Peak

Compton
edge
Photopeak

Annihilation
Peak

Energy Eo
6

Other components of
spectrum
Single escape peak
Double escape peak

Pulse height spectrum reflects the

energy distributions of interactions
of incident photons

Basic Gamma Spectroscopy

Total Absorption Peak

10000

TAP

Counts (#)

1000

100

10

1
0

100

200

300

Energy (keV)

400

500

Photopeak
It encloses pulses produced by total
absorption of gamma rays of
particular energy
Resolution of pulsed height
spectrum is described as Full Width
at Half Maximum (FWHM)
FWHM = Width of the photopeak at
half its maximum height / position
of photopeak along the pulse
height scale
10

Example

11

Compton Continuum

12

Heights of photopeak and compton

plateu vary with size of crystal
In a larger crystal, more scattered
photons interact before they escape
from the crystal.
Hence the height of the photopeak
is increased, and the height of the
Compton plateau is reduced
13

Pulse height spectra for 137Cs measured

with NaI(Tl) crystals of different

sizes

14

X-ray escape peaks

A ray that interacts photoelectrically in a
NaI(Tl) crystal usually ejects an electron from
the K shell of iodine.
As the vacancy left by the photoelectron is filled
by an electron from the L shell, a characteristic
x ray is released with an energy equal to the
difference (28 keV) in binding energy of L and K
electrons in iodine.
If the 28-keV x ray interacts in the scintillation
crystal, then the light released during this
interaction contributes to formation of the
voltage pulse for the primary ray, and this
voltage pulse falls within the photopeak.
15

Pulse height spectrum for 109Cd. An iodine x-ray

escape peak is present at a position 22 keV

16

Characteristics X-ray peak

Characteristic x rays are
released as rays from a
radioactive source undergo
photoelectric interaction in
the lead shield surrounding
the source and detector.
Some of these x rays
escape from the shield and
strike the NaI(Tl) crystal to
produce peaks in the pulse
height spectrum.
17

Characteristic x-ray peak

at 72 keV produced by xrays from a 6 x 6-in. lead
shield surrounding a
scintillation detector and
a 51Cr source.
The x-ray peak is reduced
by increasing the inner
dimensions of the shield
to 32 32 in.
(dottedcurve)
or by lining the shield
with 0.03 in. of cadmium
(dashed curve).
18

Backscatter Peak
Here we are
looking at the
scattered photon
off the surrounding
lead. The peak
appears at the
energy (few
hundred kev) from
a photon scattered
back at ~180.

19

The backscatter peak at about 200

keV is produced by absorption in
the detector of photons scattered
at wide angles during Compton
interactions of primary rays in
the detector-source shield.
The backscatter peak is greatest
for the 6 6-in. iron shield
because the relative probability of
Compton interaction of the 0.835MeV rays from 54Mn is higher
for iron than for lead.
The backscatter peak is reduced if
the distance between the shield
and the detector is increased

20

Annihilation peak
Pair-production interaction of rays with an
energy greater than 1.02 MeV is accompanied
by release of 511-keV annihilation photons.
If a primary ray interacts by pair production
in the detector-source shield, then one of the
annihilation photons may escape from the
shield and interact in the crystal.
This process results in the production of an
annihilation peak in the pulse height spectrum

21

22

Annihilation Escape Peaks

Pair production of high-energy (>1.02 MeV)
photons in the scintillation crystal results in the
emission of two 511-keV annihilation photons,
one or both of which may escape from the
crystal.
Pulses that reflect the loss of one annihilation
photon contribute to the single-escape peak
that occurs at a location 0.511 MeV below the
photopeak for the primary ray.
Pulses that reflect the loss of both annihilation
photons contribute to the double-escape peak
that occurs at a location 1.02 MeV below the
photopeak
23

24

Characteristic X-rays
Photons emitted
by the source
ionize the
surrounding
material.
Characteristic xrays are emitted
as electron shell
transitions take
place to fill the
lower empty
shell.
25

Characteristic X-Rays and Graded Shields

You only see this for K-shell electrons in high Z (lead)
materials and moderately high activity sources. Why?
To eliminate these peaks, graded shields are
introduced. Typically, cadmium sheets are placed on
the lead followed by copper on the cadmium. Other
materials can be used as long as you go from high-tolow Z materials.
Copper and cadmium are used because both are
malleable and cheap.
Lea
d

Cadmiu
m

Copper

26

Gamma Ray Spectroscopy

Let us look at 60Co.
It is an activation product
commonly used for energy
calibrations as well as QA/QC.

27

Expected Spectra Based on Decay

28

Actual Spectra

1000000

Counts (#)

100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
0

500

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Energy (keV)
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Reason
When an isotope emits more than one
photon in a single decay process, there
is a chance that both will deposit energy
in the detector. When this happens, a
sum peak can be observed.
Sum peaks can also be observed in
samples containing isotopes that emit
only one photon per decay. This is
generally only true for high activity
samples.
30

Single Escape Peaks

Because the detector volume is finite, there is
a possibility that one of the annihilation
photons created from pair production events in
the detector can escape.
When this happens, a peak can be observed at
an energy equal to the TAP - 511 keV.

31

Single Escape Peak

1000000

Counts (#)

100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Energy (keV)

32

Double Escape Peak

If both annihilation photons exit
the detector, then a peak can be
observed at TAP 1022 keV.

33

Double Escape Peak

1000000

Counts (#)

100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
0

500

1000

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2000

2500

3000

Energy (keV)

34

Annihilation Peak
If a pair production event occurs in the
surrounding shielding material, there is
possibility that one of the two annihilation
photons will deposit energy into the detector.
When this happens, an annihilation peak can
be observed at 511 keV.
1000000

Counts (#)

100000
10000
1000
100
10
1
0

500

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1500

Energy (keV)

2000

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3000

35

HPGe detectors

36

Detector Efficiency
The efficiency of an HPGe detector
is usually expressed relative to a 3
X 3 NaI detector. The absolute
efficiency of the NaI detector is
0.12% at 1.33 MeV in a specified
geometry.
Relative efficiencies range from
10% to 150% for HPGe detectors.
37

Detector Efficiency

38

Energy Resolution

Good resolution

Counts

Poor resolution

Energy
39

Calculation of Resolution
Y

Resolution,
R = FWHM
Eo

Counts
Y/2

FWHM

Energy

Eo
40

Detection Efficiency
=

Number of pulses recorded

Number of radiation quanta
emitted by source

41

Dead time
Extremely hot (e.g. high activity)
samples produce rapid pulses
Following each pulse the detector is
unavailable
(e.g. dead to further input)
Cannot resolve two particles closely spaced
in time (coincidence loss)

High dead time

Means the detector is missing many
counts
Can introduce counting errors into results.
42

Correcting for Coincidence

Loss
Called dead time or resolving time
corrections
Where
R= true counting rate (c/s)
R0 = observed counting rate (c/s)
= resolving time, seconds

Ro
R
1 R o

43

Tools
Gamma Ray Energy Libraries
Spectral Analysis Software

44

Compton Continuum

45

Compton Basics

Ee E

511 keV

1 cos

E e max 411 keV

411 keV

411 keV
1 cos 180
1
511 keV

E e 254 keV at 180

E e min 0 at 0
46

Compton Edge
= 0

= 180
Compton
Edge

47

Gold Example

48

Gold HPGe Spectrum

49

Spectrum
Where do the counts between the
TAP and the Compton edge come
from?
Where do the counts greater than
the TAP come from?

50