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Economically Important
Metal
Concentrations
in Earths
Concentration
Metal
(% by weight)
Crust
Aluminum
Iron
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Uranium
Lead
Silver
Gold
8.0
5.8
0.0058
0.0072
0.0082
0.00016
0.001
0.000008
0.0000002
Note for
comparison:
Silicon 28%
Oxygen 46%
What is a mineral?
A solid naturally-occurring compound
having
a
definite
chemical
composition
Examples:
quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
covelite - CuS (a sulphide)
Economically Important
Metals
Typical GradesTypical
of Ore
Grade
Metal
(% by weight)
Deposits
Aluminum
Iron
Copper
Nickel
Zinc
Uranium
Lead
Silver
Gold
30
53
0.5-4
1
4
0.3
5
0.01
0.0001-0.001
10
Iron
Aluminum
10
Lead Zinc
Copper
Nickel
10
Uranium
y=x
-1
10
Silver
-2
10
-3
10
Gold
-4
10
-7
10
-5
10
-3
10
-1
10
Crustal Concentration
10
10
Hydrothermal Ore
Deposits
As magma cools, more abundant
metals (silicon, aluminum) deposit
first
Solidification of magma releases
water - a hydrothermal solution
Minerals precipitate from
hydrothermal solution and deposit in
cracks or veins in rock
Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Concentration of minerals caused by
high temperatures and pressures
near intrusions
Examples:
Lead-zinc deposits in southeast
B.C.
Diamonds
Garnets
Hydrothermal and
Metamorphic Ore
Deposits
Geyser or hot spring
zoning
Hydrothermal solutions
entering veins in rocks
Ore deposit
Alteration of rocks by
heat and pressure
Intrusion
Exploration Methods
Remote sensing
Geological mapping
Geophysical surveys
Geochemical surveys
Bulk sampling
Drilling (core or destructive)
Airborne Geophysics
Helicopter
Bush
Cable
Bird
GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS
Geochemical Anomalies
DIAMOND DRILL
DIAMOND DRILL
HOLE SIZES
SURFACE SET
DIAMOND DRILL
CORE BIT AND
REAMING SHELL
Role of Exploration
Each ton of ore mined must be
replaced with another ton to
continue business.
The alternative to exploration is
acquisition of mining properties.
Exploration has a high failure rate,
but this should not affect a
diversified mining company.
Exploration costs are taxdeductible.
Diamonds in Canada?
Diamonds
are
formed
at
high
pressure deep in the earth and
transported to surface in kimberlite
pipes
Other
minerals
also
formed
if
pressures high enough - indicator
minerals
Indicator minerals are mobile and
easily transported by erosion.
Indicator minerals
Kimberlite pipe
Lac de Gras
Recommended Reading
Fire into Ice
Charles Fipke and the
Great Diamond Hunt
by Vernon Frolick
Raincoast Press
Nevada Gold
Formed 30-50 million years ago by
hydrothermal activity in sedimentary
rocks
Part of a large mineralized zone
extending into Mexico and Central
America
Carlin, Bootstrap, Cortez, Gold Acres
Some deposits low grade but can
now be processed using heap leach
technology