Displaying and

Summarizing Data for

interpretation and
Analysis

Why organize and present

data?
To summarize when data set has too many
records to look at individually
To become familiar with the data before analysis,
and to catch errors
To look for (and display)
Patterns
Trends
Relationships
Exceptions / outliers
To communicate findings to others

How to organize data

Iterative process

Identify what data you have

Use tables and graphs to summarize; catch errors;

identify patterns, relationships

Decide how best to summarize the data to

communicate the findings

Use tables and graphs to communicate the

findings effectively

Tables

Data are arranged in rows and columns

Quantitative information

Usually, presents frequency of occurrence of

some event or characteristic in different
subgroups

Types of Tables

1-variable table (frequency distribution)

Range of values of a single variable

Number of observations with each value

2-variable table

Counts shown according to 2 variables at

once

3-variable table

Counts shown according to 3 variables at

once

Composite (combination) tables

Example of 1-Variable Table

Population of India Census
(2011)
Population of India in crores ( 10 m)

India

121

Rural

83.3

Urban

37.7
Source :

Two-Variable Tables

Shows counts according to two variables

simultaneously

Also called cross-tab or contingency tables

Population of India in Crores

2001
Category Census

2011
Census

Difference

India

102.9

121

18.1

Rural

74.3

83.3

Urban

28.6

37.7

9.1

Frequency Distribution

Also called one-way or one-variable table

For nominal and ordinal data, shows the
values a single variable can take, and the
number of records with each value
For interval and ratio data, create
categories (intervals or ranges)

Gender Composition of
Population (0-6) by Residence
-India 2001-2011

Indicat
or

2001
2011
Populati Proportio Populati Proportio

on(m)
n (%)
on(m)
n (%)
RURAL

Male
65.2
51.7
61.29
52.1
Femal
e
61.07
48.3
56.3
47.9
Sex
Ratio
934
919
URBAN

Male
19.59
52.5
21.67
52.6
Femal

Relative Frequency /
Proportional Distribution

shows the proportion of the total number of

observations that appears in that category

computed by dividing the number of values in that

category by total number in table

useful for comparing sets of data with unequal

numbers of observations

Three-Variable Tables

Usually too busy for PowerPoint slide

On paper, three-variable is maximum most people

can digest

Age Structure of Empowered

Action Group States
Mad
Utta
Age
Chat Jhar hya
Raja r
Utta
Grou Indi Assa Biha tisg kha Prad Odis stha Prad rakh
p
a
m
r
arh nd esh ha n
esh and
035.3 37.4 42.0 36.9 39.7 38.5 33.2 39.9 40.9 36.4
14
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
15- 46.1 46.9 41.2 44.7 43.6 44.4 47.1 43.3 42.0 44.9
44
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
45- 10.9 9.7 9.9 11.1 10.7 9.7 11.3 9.5 9.7 11.7
59
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
7.4 5.9 6.6 7.2 5.9 7.1 8.3 6.7 7.0 7.7
60+
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

Decadal Growth Rate of Population

Category
EAG
Rural
Urban

Non EAG
Rural
Urban

1991-2001 2001-2011 Difference

25
20.9
-4.1
23.5
18.7
-4.8
31.6
29.9
-1.7

18.9
15
-3.9
13.2
5.7
-7.5
31.5
32.7
1.2

Composite (Combination)
Tables

Combines two or more 1-way or 2-way tables

Uses limited space efficiently

Well suited for written and oral presentations, but

simple tables must be prepared first

Population EAG states

States

% of
0-6 yr
Urban
% of % of
populatio amongst proportio
SC
ST
n (2011) population n of total
Assam
2.58
14.47
14.08
6.9 12.4
Bihar
8.58
17.9
11.3 15.7
0.9
Jharkhand
2.72
15.89
24.05 11.8 26.3
Rajasthan
5.67
15.31
24.89 17.2 12.6
Orissa
3.47
12
16.68 16.5 22.1
MP
6
14.53
27.63 15.2 20.3
chattisgarh
2.11
14.03
23.24 11.6 31.8
UP
16.49
14.9
22.28 21.1
0.1
utarakhand
0.84
13.14
30.55 17.9
3
India

13.12
31.16 16.2
8.2

Descriptive Studies

Definition of Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and
determinants of health related states or events in
specified populations, and the application of this study
to control of health problems.
- Lasts Dictionary of Epidemiology

Study Designs

Distribution descriptive studies

Determinants analytic studies

Types of Descriptive Studies

Case reports and case series

Descriptive incidence studies

Cross-sectional studies (Descriptive prevalence

studies)

Ecologic (correlational) studies

Descriptive Studies Uses

Display patterns of occurrence

Focus on person, place, time

Used for

Program planning
Generating hypotheses

Case Reports and Case

Series

Profile of a case or case series

Generate new hypotheses

Interface: medicine and epidemiology

Numerator data only

No measure of disease occurrence

Case Series on Zika WHO

Bulletin

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23

Descriptive Incidence Studies

Patterns in occurrence of incident cases (often from
surveillance data)
Defined population (denominators from census)
Specified period of time
Optionally, distribution of cases by factors of interest

Example Cross sectional

study

NPSP Unit Bhawanipatna in Orissa map

As on Wk-34

pot Map of AFP cases NPSP Unit Bhawanipatna

2004, 2005 & 2006

SILENT FOR
FOR
SILENT
LAST 3
LAST
2
YEARS
YEARS

2
1

11

Tikabali

7
Nuagaon

10

12

Tumudibandha

10

3
Th. Rampur

9
6

5
4

7
8

10

N.12
Patna

2
14
9

Mathili
V

11

13

K.Guma

As on Wk-34

2004

(41)

2005

(116)

2006
(164)

6
7

1
5

BOU-12

pot Map of AFP cases NPSP Unit Bhawanipatna

2007

8
2

KLH-26
1

11
7

NRP-6
8

10

12

PLB-9

3
6

10

3
2

9
6

GJP-7
4

3
8

10

12

RYG-10
1

1
5

KRP-10

14

MKG-9

9
11

As on Wk-34

13

2007

(91)

Cross-Sectional Studies
(Descriptive Prevalence Studies)

"Snapshot" of well-defined population

Can classify exposures and diseases at same time
Captures all existing disease (serosurveys capture
asymptomatic cases)
Advantages:

Quick, inexpensive, useful

Disadvantages:

Uncertain temporal relationship

Survivor effect

Animal Handlers
Brucellosis Sero Survey

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Ecologic (Correlational) Studies

Exposure and disease at aggregate (e.g., country) level
Data from groups not individuals
Unit of observation is a population
Limitation: no individual link of E-D
Types: comparison and trend
Advantages:

Quick, inexpensive, data available

Primary Disadvantage:

Aggregate association may not = individual

Method of delivery and pregnancy

outcomes in Asia: the WHO global survey
on maternal and perinatal health 200708

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Descriptive Studies
Summary

Describe patterns of occurrence

Four main types:

Case reports and case series
Descriptive incidence studies
Cross-sectional (prevalence) studies
Ecologic (correlational) studies

Generate hypotheses for analytic study

Developing
Epidemiologic
Hypotheses

What is a Hypothesis?

In epidemiology, a hypothesis is:

a supposition, arrived at from observation or

reflection, that leads to refutable predictions

any conjecture cast in a form that will allow it

to be tested and refuted

What Does a Hypothesis

Address?

In

outbreak setting, hypothesis may address:

Agent
Source of the agent
Mode of transmission (and vehicle/vector)
Exposures that increase risk of disease

Why is a Hypothesis
Important?

Without a hypothesis

What are you going to investigate?

What questions are you going to ask on your

questionnaire?

What clinical samples are you going to take?

What environmental samples are you going to

take?

How to Generate Hypotheses

in an Outbreak Setting

Subject-matter knowledge

Descriptive epidemiology

Outliers

Talk to patients

Talk to local officials

Descriptive Epidemiology

Time (Epidemic curve)

Does shape hint at mode of transmission?
Does narrow peak point to a particular time of
exposure?

Place
High attack rates in one place? What is special
about that place (neighborhood, wing of hospital,
etc.)?

Person
Which group(s) by age, sex, occupation, etc.
have highest rates?

Epidemic Curves and Source

Common point source

Common persistent source

cases

cases

days

days

Common intermittent
source

Propagated source

cases

cases

days

weeks

Incubation Periods & Exposure

Periods
25
20
15
10
5
0
9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 2

September October
Week of onset

November

9 16

December

Incubation Periods & Exposure

Periods
4 weeks
25
20
15
10
5
0
9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 2

September October
Week of onset

November

9 16

December

Incubation Periods & Exposure

Periods
4 weeks
25
20
15

2 weeks

10
5
0
9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 11 18 25 2

September October
Week of onset

November

9 16

December

Look at Outliers

By time
Date / time of onset early? Late? What exposure
did that patient have in common with the others,
but perhaps at a different time?

By place
Non-resident visitor? Usually has limited number of
exposures, can narrow possibilities

By person
Again, what exposure did that patient (who is
different from the others by age, sex, etc.) have in
common with the other patients?

Evaluating Hypotheses

Compare hypotheses to facts

Does all the evidence point in the same
direction?
What evidence is most credible?

Collect laboratory data

Environmental samples
Clinical samples

Analytic studies
Retrospective cohort studies
Case-control studies

Conclusion

Hypothesis generation is an important step of

any outbreak investigation.

Hypotheses can be generated in a variety of

ways by having knowledge of the subject, by
looking at the data, and by talking to patients
and local officials.

Without good hypotheses, epidemiologic studies

are likely to be fruitless.