DC Unit 1

Second Semester 2016/2017
R.C.Patel Institute Of Technology, Shirpur

Dept. of Computer Engineering
Text Book
Data Communications and

Networking, 4rd Edition, Behrouz A.
Forouzan
Basics of Data Communication: Characteristics and

Components
Data Representation and Data Flow
Networks, Introduction to ISO-OSI Reference model
Introduction to Signals and Transmission
Impairments: Analog and Digital
Periodic Analog Signals, Digital Signals
Transmission impairment, data rate limits,
Performance
Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330
Data Communications are the exchange of

data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct

destination.
2. Accuracy:
Data delivered accurately.

Altered data which left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timelines:
The system must deliver data in timely manner without

delay (real-time).
4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival

time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets.
Protocol
Rules
.
.
.
Protocol
Rules
.
.
Message
.
Transmission Medium
Receiver
Sender
animation
1. Message: data.
2. Sender: The device that send the message.
3. Receiver: The device that receive the message.
4. Transmission Medium: The physical path
between sender and receiver, the message
travel.
5. Protocol: Is a set of rules that governs data
communication. It represents an agreement

between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
7
Text
Numbers
Images
Audio
Video
Simplex: one direction only.
Remote Control
TV
Always one side sender and another side

receiver.
Half-Duplex: two-way alternate.
Walki-Talki
In different time
Each side maybe sender or receiver but not a

same time.
10
Duplex: two-way concurrent.

Computer network
At same time
Mobile Network
Each side sender and receiver at same time.

11
A Network is a set of node connect

together by communication link to sharing of
resources and to transmit information.
Node: Computer, Printer, Scanner, Software ,

PDA, etc.
Information: text, voice, picture, etc.
12
Why Network ?????

Sharing
Sharing of What ?????

Resources
What Resources ?????

Printer, Scanner, Memory, Information
Network Bandwidth, Internet Services, Data Base,
etc.
13
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

The most important of these are Performance, Reliability, and
Security
Data communication
network criteria
Performance
Reliability
Security
14
Performance:
The performance of network depends on a number of factors:
Number of users
Type of transmission medium
Hardware
Software.
The performance is evaluate by two networking metric :

Throughput and Delay.
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit

time and response time.
Transit time: is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to anther.
Response time: is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
Reliability:
The network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, (the
time it takes a link to recover from of failure).
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by
Frequency of failure
Recovery time of a network after a failure
Security:
Network security include protecting data
from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage, and write policies and
implementing it for security issues.
17
Sharing (file, printer, application).

Internet browsing.
Fax Service.
Telephony.
Conferencing.
Database.
Backup.
Etc..
18
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Transmission media (wired, wireless ).

Network Operating System (NOS).
Network Interface Card (NIC).
Network Hardware:Hubs.
Switches.
Routers.
Gateways.
Access Point.
Repeaters.
19
Transmission Media- Transmission media are the facilities used to

interconnect computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are
sometimes called channels, links or lines.
Shared data- Shared data are data that file servers provide to
clients such as data files, printer access programs and e-mail.
Network Interface Card- Each computer in a network has a

special expansion card called a network interface card (NIC). The
NIC prepares (formats) and sends data, receives data, and
controls data flow between the computer and the network. On
the transmit side, the NIC passes frames of data on to the
physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link. On
the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the
physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.
Local Operating System- A local operating system allows

personal computers to access files, print to a local printer, and
have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on
the computer. Examples are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000,
Windows 98, Windows XP etc.
Network Operating System- The network operating system is a

program that runs on computers and servers, and allows the
computers to communicate over the network.
20
Hub is a device that splits a network connection into

multiple computers. It is like a distribution center. When a
computer requests information from a network or a
specific computer, it sends the request to the hub through
a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it
to the entire network. Each computer in the network
should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for
them or not.
21
Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of

computer network components. Switch is like a Hub but
built in with advanced features. It uses physical device
addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver
the message to the right destination or port.
22
When we talk about computer network components, the

other device that used to connect a LAN with an internet
connection is called Router. When you have two distinct
networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet
connection to multiple computers, we use a Router. In
most cases, recent routers also include a switch which in
other words can be used as a switch. You dont need to
buy both switch and router, particularly if you are
installing small business and home networks. There are
two types of Router: wired and wireless. The choice
depends on your physical office/home setting, speed and
cost.
23
24
Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.

Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks into subnets
to reduce the amount of traffic on each larger subnet or
for security reasons.
Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and
manages the traffic flow between them. Today, network
switches have largely replaced bridges.
25
The term gateway is applied to any device,

system, or software application that can
perform the function of translating data from
one format to another. The key feature of a
gateway is that it converts the format of the
data, not the data itself.
26
Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and

demodulator. Modems perform a simple function: They
translate digital signals from a computer into analog
signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.
The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and
demodulates at the receiving end.
Modems provide a relatively slow method of
communication. In fact, the fastest modem available on
the market today has a maximum speed of 56Kbps.
27
Technically it is a device which enables digital data

transmission to be transmitted over telecommunication lines.
A Telco company uses entirely different data transmission
technology from the technology that a PC uses for data
transmission. A modem understands both technologies.
It converts the technology that a PC uses in the technology

which a Telco company understand. It enables communication
between PC (Known as DTE) and Telco company (Known as
DCE).
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) is a device (usually a router

or PC) that converts data frame into signals and reconvert
received signals in data frame. DTE device communicates
with DCE device.
DCE (Data circuit terminating equipment) is a device that

converts data signal between LAN network and WAN network.
28
Anetworkdevice used to regenerate or replicate a

signal.Repeatersare used in transmission systems to
regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. Analogrepeatersfrequently can only
amplify the signal while digitalrepeaterscan reconstruct
a signal to near its original quality.
Arepeateris
an
electronic
device
in
acommunicationchannel that increases the power of a
signal and retransmits it, allowing it to travel further.
Since it amplifies the signal, it requires a source of
electric power.
29
Access Point.Access pointin wireless LAN

(Wi-Fi) functions like a hub or a switch in
wirednetwork. It connects computers
ordevicestogether
to
create
a
wirelessnetwork.
Most
wirelessaccess
pointsalso function as anetworkbridge that
connects
the
Wi-Fi
networkto
a
wirednetworksuch as Ethernet.
30
type of connection:-
1. Point-to-point:
2. Multipoint:
31
A pair of nodes connected together via

dedicated link.
Figure 1.5
Point-to-point connection
32
Number of node connected and share a single

link.
33
Topology - Physical and logical network

layout
Physical actual layout of the computer
cables and other network devices
Logical the way in which the network
appears to the devices that use it
34
Contd.
Physical Structures
Physical Topology:
35
MESH :
Figure 1.8
devices)
Fully connected mesh topology (for five
36
Each computer connects to every other.

High level of redundancy
Rarely used.
Wiring is very complicated
Cabling cost is high
Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky
create point to point connection
between specific network devices
- often seen in WAN implementation
37
38
STAR :
Figure 1.9
Star topology
39
In a star network, each node (file server and

workstations) is connected to a central
device called a hub.
The hub takes a signal that comes from any
node and passes it along to all the other
nodes in the network.
Data on a star network passes through the
hub or switch before continuing to its
destination.
The hub or switch manages and controls all
functions of the network.
The star topology reduces the chance of
network failure by connecting all of the
system to a central node.
40
41
BUS :
Bus topology
42
All the nodes (file server, workstations, etc)

on a bus topology are connected by one
single cable i.e. backbone link.
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable
with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file
server, workstations, etc) are connected to
the linear cable.
Popular on LANs because they are
inexpensive and easy to install.
43
44
RING :
Figure
Ring topology
45
In a ring network, every device has exactly

two neighbors for communication purposes.
All messages travel through a ring in the
same direction.
Each device in a ring incorporates a
Repeater.
A failure in any cable or device breaks the
loop and can take down the entire network.
Easy to install and reconfigure.
46
47
A combination of any two or more network

topologies.
A hybrid topology always occurs when two
different basic network topologies are
connected.
It is a mixture of above mentioned
topologies. Usually, a central computer is
attached with sub-controllers which in turn
participate in a variety of topologies
48
49
Figure A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

51
Figure
Categories of networks
53
Upon the scale (size):1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
PAN (Personal Area Network).

LAN (Local Area Network).
CAN (Campus Area Network).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).
WAN (Wide Area Network).
54
PAN is a short-distance network design to

individual user (person).
PAN may be contain:- printer, mobile, computer,

wireless printers , PDA, etc.
components of PAN connected together via

Bluetooth, USB cable, etc.
55
Bluetooth
Wireless Printer
ble
a
BC
S
U
Scanner
PDA
56
A LAN is a group of node connected together

in a small specific area.
LAN may be contain workstations,

computers, scanner, printers, servers, etc.
57
Floor 4
..
Floor 3
...
Floor 2
Floor 1
58
A CAN is a group of interconnection LAN

within limited geographical area.
A CAN using in school campus, military

base, university campus ,etc.
59
Administration
building
University library
IT faculty
60
Figure
A MAN is a large computer network uses to

connect between LAN in different location
(cities).
A MAN is a group of node connect together over
city.
MAN
61
CAN 4
LAN 1
Connect different branch

location in city
LAN 3
LAN 2
62
A WAN is a computer network that covers large

geographical area.
WAN may utilize public, leased or private communication
equipment, usually in combination and can therefore span
an unlimited number of miles.
Figure
WAN
63
64
65
WAN
MAN
CAN
LAN
PAN
66
Unicast Mode:
Single source send to single node.
67
Multicast Mode :
Single source send to specific nodes (group) that
are connected to same Network.
one-to-many
68
Broadcast Mode:
Single source send to all others node that are
connected to same Network
one-to-all
69
To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals
Data can be analog or digital
70
The term analog data refers to information

that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has

discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
Analog data : sound made by human voice

take on continuous data.
Digital data : data stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s & 1s.
71
72
73
What is signal?
It is electric, electronic or optical
representation of data, which can be
sent
over a communication media.
Signal Types
Analog and digital
Analog signals has continues (infinite number
of) values over a period of time
74
75
76
Analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite.
A simple analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite analog signal is composed of
multiple sine waves.
Both analog & digital signal can take one of 2
forms: periodic & a periodic (nonperiodic)
77
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a

measurable time frame called a period &
repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods. The completion of one full pattern is
called a cycle.
A periodic signal changes without exhibiting a
pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
Both analog & digital signal can be periodic or
non periodic.
We commonly use periodic analog signal and
non periodic digital signal
A periodic analog signal can be simple or
composite
78
Its change over the course of a cycle is

Smooth, consistent and continuous rolling
flow.
79
The peak amplitude of a signal represents

the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.
80
Peak amplitude is value of the signal at

different instants of time.
It is measured in volts.
81
Describes position of the wave form relative

to time zero
Expressed in degrees or radians
A sine wave with a phase of 0 starts at time
0 with a zero amplitude. The
amplitude is increasing.
A sine wave with a phase of 90 starts at
time 0 with a peak amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing.
A sine wave with a phase of 180 starts at

time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude
is decreasing.
82
3 sine waves with same amplitude and

frequency but different phases
83
It is inverse of the time period.

Measured in hertz.
Period:amount of time required to complete
one cycle.
Frequency: No of periods in one second
84
85
Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
86
87
Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.
Change in a short span of time means
high frequency.
Change over a long span of time means
low frequency.
88
If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite
89
Time domain plot: shows changes in

signal amplitude with respect to time.
phase & frequency are not explicitly
measured.
Frequency domain plot: Shows relation
between amplitude and frequency.
90
91
Simple
sine wave signal is very useful to

carry electric energy but useless for data
communication.
We can use single sine wave to send an
alarm.
If we want to use a sine wave for
communication, we need to change one
or more characteristics.
For eg: Changing Amplitude 1- max
amplitude, for 0 min amplitude.
92
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves
According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases
93
The
range of frequencies that a medium

can pass is called its Bandwidth.
The bandwidth is a range & is normally
referred to as the difference between two
numbers.
94
In addition to being represented by an analog

signal, information can also be represented
by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two
levels. In this case, we can send more than 1
bit for each level.
95
Bit Interval: Time required to send one

single bit.
Bit Rate: Number of bits intervals per

second
Bit rate=1/T
Kbps=103 bps
Mbps=106 bps
Gbps=109 bps
96
97
LOW PASS VERSUS BAND PASS:

A low pass channel has bandwidth with
frequencies between 0 & f.
A Band pass channel has bandwidth with
frequencies between f1 & f2.
Digital Transmission: theoretically needs a
bandwidth between 0 & infinity.
Analog Transmission: An analog transmission
between f1 & f2. (requires Band pass channel)
- Bandwidth of an analog signal can always be
shifted. The bandwidth of a medium can be
divided into several band pass channels to carry
several analog transmission.
98
99
Signals travel through transmission media,

which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that
the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is
received. Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.
100
101
Attenuation means loss of energy when signal

travel
else through medium
102
103
104
105
106
Distortion means that the signal

changes its form or shape.
Each signal component has its own

propagation speed through medium &
therefore its
Own delay arriving at the final
destination.
Figure shows the effect of distortion on a

composite signal.
107
108
109
110
111
112
Propagation Time: time required for a signal to

travel from one point of transmission medium to
another.
Propagation Time= distance/propagation speed
113
114
Data rate depends upon thee factors:

The Bandwidth available
The levels of signal we can use
The quality of the channel
1. Noiseless
Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate:

Defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate= 2 X Bandwidth X log2L
L- Number of signal used to represent data.
Bit Rate- is the bit rate in bits per second.
115
2.
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity:
Capacity = Bandwidth X log2(1+SNR)

SNR
- Signal to Noise Ratio
Capacity Capacity of channel
bits/sec
In case of extremely noisy channel c=0
Between The Nyquist bit rate & The Shannon limit, the
result providing the smallest channel capacity is the
one that establishes the limit.
116
Ex. Consider a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 3000Hz transmitting a signal
with 2 signal levels .The maximum bit rate
can be calculated as
117
BitRate=2*3000*log22
= 6000 bps
118
119
UNIT 1 PROBLEMS
120
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.
62
Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1
ms (1 ms is 103 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 s). We
make the following substitutions:.
122
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60

Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
61
124
Example 3.
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
kilohertz?
62
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then
we calculate the frequency from the period (1
Hz = 103 kHz).
126
Example 4
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.
What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
128
Example 5
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine
waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and
900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum,
assuming all components have a maximum
amplitude of 10 V.
70
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300,

500, 700, and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
130
Example 6
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest
frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
70
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
The spectrum contains all integer frequencies.

We show this by a series of spikes (see Figure
3.14).
132
Example 7
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.
71
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the
highest at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency
domain and the bandwidth.
134
Example 8
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
136
Example 9
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate
of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is
138
Example 10
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What
is
the
required
bit
rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
140
Example 11
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?
Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of
16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and
the screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four
bits represents one color pixel.
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
142
Example 12
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P 2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as
82
A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

Decibel(DB) Signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel.
The Decibel measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points.
dB=10log10 p2/p1
144
Example 13
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as
82
Example 14
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel
are
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Signal to noise ratio = average signal power/average noise power
SNRdB=10log10SNR
85
Example 15
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
BitRate=2 X bandwidth X log2L
Example 15
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
BitRate=2 X bandwidth X log2L
86
Example 16
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example 17
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as
Example 17
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
87
Example 18
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
Example 19
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
Throughput is measure of how fast we can actually send data
90
through a network.
Example 20
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
Propagation time =
distance/propagation speed
Example 20
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
91
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the
source to destination. Propagation time = distance/propagation speed
Example 21
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for
a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at
2.4 108 m/s.
Transmission
Bandwidth
time
Message
size
Example 21
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
91
Example 21 (continued)
Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
91
Example 22
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.
91
Example 22(continued)
Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.
91
Network Software
Network Hardware
1. It consists of layers, protocols 1. It consists of computer, NIC,

and interfaces.
terminals, communication
media & connective devices.
2. Software changes whenever
upgrades are made to the
networks.
2. Hardware device remain

stable.
3. Some of function of software

include communication with
terminals, error checking and
flow control.
3. Hardware is just connecting

different networks together.
4. Network software is highly

structured.
4. Not highly structured.
3.161
The power of a signal is 100w and the power

of a noise is 10w.In order to send 10,000
bits/sec how much bandwidth is needed?
SNR= Avg signal power/Avg noise power

=100w/10w
= 10
Bandwidth=capacity/log2 (1+SNR)
=10000/log 2(11)
=2.891KHz
162
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the

power of the noise is 1 /lW; what are the
values of SNR and SNRdB ?
163
SNR=10000w /1mw
= 10000
SNRdB = 10 log10 10,000 = 10 log10 104 = 40
164
Signal to noise ratio = average signal power/average noise power

SNRdB=10log10SNR
Hear ,power of signal = 10nw,

power of noice = 1micro w
SNR = 10000micro/1nw = 10000
SNR dB = 10 log10 10000 = 40
3.165
Problem 2:
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
3.166
Capacity = bandwidth X log2(1+SNR)

1000Xlog2(1+1)
1000 X log2(2)
3.167
D= 2,40,000
S = 1,86,000
T=?
T = Distance/ Velocity = D/V = 2,40,000/1,86,000
T= 1.28 sec
3.168
Propagation time =
3000/ 3 X 108 X 75/100
=13ms
Propagation time = distance/propagation speed
3.169
If the signal at the beginning of a cable with

-0.3dB/km has a power of 2MW, what is the
power of the signal at 5km?
170
The loss in the cable in decible is

5*(-0.3) =-1.5dB
We can calculate the power as
dB=10log10P2/P1
= -1.5
P2/P1=10 -0.15
= 0.71
P2=0.71*P1
=0.71*2
= 1.4MW
171
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which

the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. For this channel the capacity is
calculated as
C = B X log2(1+SNR)
= Blog2(1+0)
=Blog2(1)
= B*0
=0
172
We have a channel with a 1MHz bandwidth.

The SNR for this channel is 63 . What is the
appropriate bit rate & signal level?
C = B X log2(1+SNR)
= 106*log2(1+63)
=106* log2(64)
=6Mbps
173
Ex. A channel has B=4Khz. Determine the

channel capacity for each of the following
signal-to-noise ratios
a) 20dB
b) 30dB
c) 40dB
174
C = B X log2(1+SNR)
= 4*103 *log2 (1+100)
= 4*103 * 3.32 *2.004
=26.6 Kbits/s
C = B X log2(1+SNR)
= 4*103 *log2 (1+1000)
= 4*103 * 3.32 *3.000
=39.8 Kbits/s
C = B X log2(1+SNR)
=4*103 *log2 (1+102)
= 4*103 * 3.32 *4.000
=53.1 Kbits/s
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
LAYEREDTASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
2.190
Figure 2.1
Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.191
THEOSIMODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications
is
the
Open
Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in
the late 1970s.
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.192
Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
2.193
Figure Seven layers of the OSI model
2.194
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.195
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2.196
LAYERSINTHEOSIMODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of
each layer in the OSI model.

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
2.197
Figure 2.5 Physical layer

-Required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
- Also defines the procedure & functions that physical devices & interfaces
have to perform for transmit ion occur.
i. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: - device &

transmission media
ii. Representation of bits: - sequence of 0s and 1s
iii. Data Rate no of bits per second
iv. Synchronization of bits:
v. Physical Topology
vi) Transmission Mode:
2.198
Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
2.199
Figure Data link layer

-The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one
node to the next.
- Trailer extra bit needed for error detection.
2.200
1.
Framing: divide the stream of bits received.
2.
Physical Addressing: Adds header to the frame to define

the sender & or receiver
3.
Flow Control: Imposes a flow control mechanism to

prevent overwhelming
4.
Error Control: Adding mechanism to detect & retransmit

damaged or lost frames.
5.
Access Control: When 2 or more devices are connected to

the same link, data link layer protocol necessary to
determine which device has control.
201
Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
2.202
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
2.203
Figure 2.8 Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a pack

possible across multiple networks.
The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its fin
destination.
1. Logical addressing: If packet passes the network boundary, we need

another addressing to help distinguish the source and destination.
2. Routing: Route or switch the packets to their final destination.
2.204
Note
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
2.205
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
2.206
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
2.207
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
-Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error cont
and flow control at the process-to-process level.
Port Addressing: The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address ca
a port address. The transport layer gets the entire message to the corr
process on that computer.
Segmentation & Reassembly: Each msg divided in to segments, each segment containin
sequence number.
Connection Control: Transport layer can be either connection less or connection oriented
connection less: each packet as an independent packet
connection oriented: makes a connection at transport layer of other machine
first before delivering a packet.
2.208
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
-Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error cont
and flow control at the process-to-process level.
Flow Control: Perform end to end rather than across a single link.
Error Control: perform end to end rather than across a single link.
2.209
Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
2.210
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.211
Figure 2.12 Session layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller.

It was designed to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction betwe
communicating system.
2.212
Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
2.213
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
- Designed to handle the syntax & semantics of the information exchanged bet
the two systems.
- Designed for data translation, encryption, decryption & compression.
2.214
Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
2.215
Figure 2.14 Application layer

-Enable user, whether human or software, to access the network.
-It provide user interfaces and support for services.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mail Services:
File transfer and access:
Remote login:
Accessing the World Wide Web:
2.216
Note
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
2.217
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
2.218

DC Unit 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

DC Unit 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Second Semester 2016/2017

R.C.Patel Institute Of Technology, Shirpur

Data Communications and

Basics of Data Communication: Characteristics and

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Data Communications are the exchange of

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct

Data delivered accurately.

The system must deliver data in timely manner without

Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival

5. Protocol: Is a set of rules that governs data

communication. It represents an agreement

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Simplex: one direction only.

Always one side sender and another side

Half-Duplex: two-way alternate.

Each side maybe sender or receiver but not a

Duplex: two-way concurrent.

Each side sender and receiver at same time.

A Network is a set of node connect

Node: Computer, Printer, Scanner, Software ,

Why Network ?????

Sharing of What ?????

What Resources ?????

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

The performance of network depends on a number of factors:

Type of transmission medium

The performance is evaluate by two networking metric :

Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit

Sharing (file, printer, application).

Transmission media (wired, wireless ).

Transmission Media- Transmission media are the facilities used to

Network Interface Card- Each computer in a network has a

Local Operating System- A local operating system allows

Network Operating System- The network operating system is a

Hub is a device that splits a network connection into

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

When we talk about computer network components, the

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

The term gateway is applied to any device,

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Technically it is a device which enables digital data

It converts the technology that a PC uses in the technology

DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) is a device (usually a router

DCE (Data circuit terminating equipment) is a device that

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Anetworkdevice used to regenerate or replicate a

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Access Point.Access pointin wireless LAN

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

A pair of nodes connected together via

Number of node connected and share a single

Topology - Physical and logical network

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Data Communication and Computer Networks 1303330

Fully connected mesh topology (for five