Malhotra 07 - Essentials 1E

Chapter 7
Measurement and
Scaling
Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Introduce the concepts of measurement and scaling
and show how scaling may be considered an extension
of measurement.
2. Discuss the primary scales of measurement and
differentiate nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.
3. Classify scaling techniques as comparative and
noncomparative, and describe the comparative
techniques of paired comparison, rank order, and
constant sum.
Chapter 7 - 2
Learning Objectives (Cont.)

4. Describe the noncomparative scaling techniques, distinguish
between continuous and itemized rating scales, and explain
Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
5. Discuss the variations involved in constructing itemized rating
scales.
6. Discuss the criteria used for scale evaluation and explain how
to assess reliability and validity.
Chapter 7 - 3
Learning Objectives (Cont.)
7. Discuss the considerations involved in implementing

scales of measurement in an international setting.
8. Explain how social media can be used to implement
comparative and noncomparative scaling techniques.
9. Understand the ethical issues involved in selecting scales
of measurement.
Chapter 7 - 4
Figure 7.1
Relationship of This Chapter to the Marketing
Research Process
Step 1: Defining the Problem
Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem
Secondary &
Syndicated Data
Analysis
Step 3: Formulating a Research Design
Qualitative Research
Survey &
Observation
Research
Experimental
Research
Measurement &
Scaling
Questionnaire &
Form Design
Sampling Process &

Sample Size
Preliminary Plan of
Data Analysis
Step 4: Doing Field Work/ Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing & Analyzing Data
Step 6: Preparing & Presenting the Report
Chapter 7 - 5
Step 3 enlarged
Step 3: Formulating a
Research Design
Secondary & Syndicated Data Analysis

Qualitative Research
Survey & Observation Research
Experimental Research
Measurement & Scaling
Questionnaire & Form Design
Sampling Process & Sample Size
Preliminary Plan of Data Analysis
Chapter 7 - 6
Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other
symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain
pre-specified rules.
One-to-one correspondence between the numbers
and the characteristics being measured.
The rules for assigning numbers should be
standardized and applied uniformly.
Rules must not change over objects or time.
Chapter 7 - 7
Measurement and Scaling (Cont.)

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each
respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with
1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely
Favorable.
Measurement is the actual assignment of a number
from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the
process of placing the respondents on a continuum
with respect to their attitude toward department
stores.
Chapter 7 - 8
Scale Characteristics
Description
By description we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to
designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description.
Order
By order we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is
denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.
Distance
The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the
scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units.
Origin
The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed
beginning or true zero point.
Chapter 7 - 9
An Illustration of Scale Characteristics

Age in Years
120
Very Old
Description
Golden
Years
80
Seniors
60
Middle
Aged
40
Distance
20
Order
Young
Adults
Youth
Origin
New Born
Chapter 7 - 10
Figure 7.2
Primary Scales of Measurement
Primary Scales
Ratio
Scale
Highest level of
measurement
Interval
Scale
Ordinal
Scale
Lowest level of
measurement
Nominal
Scale
Chapter 7 - 11
Primary Scales of Measurement:

Nominal Scale
In a nominal scale, the numbers serve only as labels or
tags for identifying and classifying objects.
When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the objects.
The numbers do not reflect the amount of the
characteristic possessed by the objects.
The only permissible operation on the numbers in a
nominal scale is counting.
Chapter 7 - 12

Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers
are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to
which the objects possess some characteristic.
Can determine whether an object has more or less of a
characteristic than some other object, but not how much
more or less.
Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves
the ordered relationships between the objects.
Chapter 7 - 13

Interval Scale
In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the
scale represent equal values in the characteristic being
measured.
It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero
point and the units of measurement are arbitrary.
It is permissible to shift the origin, for example by adding a
constant, and that will result in an equivalent scale.
It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
Chapter 7 - 14

Ratio Scale
A ratio scale possesses all the properties of the
nominal, ordinal, and interval scales.
It has an absolute zero point.
It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
Ratio scales allow only proportionate transformations
that involve multiplication by a positive constant.
Chapter 7 - 15
Figure 7.3
Primary Measurement Scales Illustrated
Scale
Nominal Numbers
Finish
Assigned
to Runners
Ordinal Rank Order
Finish
of Winners
3rd
place
2nd
place
1st
place
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale
8.2
9.1
9.6
Time to Finish
in Seconds
15.2
14.1
13.4
Interval Performance
Ratio
Chapter 7 - 16
Table 7.1
Primary Scales of Measurement
Primary Scale
Basic Characteristics
Common Examples
Marketing
Examples
Nominal
Numbers
Identify and classify objects
Social Security
numbers; numbering
of football players
Brand numbers;
store types; sex
classification
Ordinal
Numbers indicate the relative

positions of the objects but
not the magnitude of
differences between them
Quality rankings;
rankings of teams in a
tournament
Preference
rankings; market
position; social
class
Interval
Differences between objects

can be compared; zero point
is arbitrary
Temperature
(Fahrenheit, Celsius)
Attitudes;
opinions; index
numbers
Ratio
Zero point is fixed; ratios of

scale values can be
computed
Length; weight
Age; income;
costs; sales;
market shares
Chapter 7 - 17
Table 7.2
Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement
NOMINAL SCALE
ORDINAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALE
Preference Ratings
No.
Store
Preference Ranking
1-7
11 - 17
RATIO SCALE
$ spent
in last 2
months
spent
in last 2
months
1.
Burger King
79
14
10
1000
2.
McDonalds
25
17
50
5000
3.
Sub Way
82
13
4.
KFC
30
16
25
2500
5.
Pizza Hut
10
17
75
7500
Chapter 7 - 18
Figure 7.4
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
Scaling
Techniques
Noncomparative
Scales
Comparative
Scales
Objects are
Evaluated
Relative to
Other Objects
Paired
Comparison
Rank
Order
Objects are
Evaluated
Independently
Constant
Sum
Chapter 7 - 19
A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of
stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be
interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or
rank order properties.
In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled
independently of the others in the stimulus set. The
resulting data are generally assumed to be interval
scaled.
Comparative scaling is also referred to as nonmetric
scaling. Noncomparative scaling is also called metric
scaling.
Chapter 7 - 20
Comparative Scaling Techniques:

Paired Comparison Scaling
In paired comparison scaling, a respondent is
presented with two objects and asked to select one
according to some criterion.
The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
Paired comparison scaling is a widely used comparative
scaling technique.
Paired comparison scaling is useful when the number of
brands is limited, but with a large number of brands, the
number of comparisons becomes unwieldy.
Chapter 7 - 21
An Illustration of Paired Comparison Scaling

Instructions
We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands. For each pair, please
indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo in the pair you would prefer for
personal use.
Recording Form
Jhirmack
Jhirmack
Finesse
Vidal Sassoon
Finesse
1A
Vidal Sassoon
Head & Shoulders
Head &
Shoulders
Pert
A 1 in a particular box means that the

Pert
1 brand in that
1 column was0 preferred over the 1
brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand.
A
Number of times preferred

3B
2
0
4
The number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.
Chapter 7 - 22

Rank Order Scaling
In rank order scaling, respondents are presented with
several objects simultaneously and asked to order or
rank them according to some criterion.
Possible that the respondent may dislike the brand
ranked 1 in an absolute sense.
Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal
data.
Distances or differences between ranks are not
defined, i.e., not meaningful in a rank order scale.
Chapter 7 - 23
An Illustration of Rank Order Scaling

Instructions
Rank the various brands of toothpaste in
order of preference. Begin by picking out
the one brand that you like most and
assign it a number 1.
Then find the second most preferred-brand
and assign it a number 2.
Continue this procedure until you have
ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order
of preference.
The least preferred brand should be
assigned a rank of 10. No two brands
should receive the same rank number. The
criteria of preference is entirely up to you.
There is no right or wrong answer
Just try to be consistent.
Brand
Rank Order
1. Crest
2. Colgate
3. Aim
4. Mentadent
5. Macleans
6. Ultra Brite
7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent
9. Plus White
10. Stripe
Chapter 7 - 24

Constant Sum Scaling
In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a
constant sum of units, such as 100 points, to attributes of
a product to reflect their importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it
zero points.
If an attribute is twice as important as some other
attribute, it receives twice as many points.
The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the
scale.
Chapter 7 - 25
An Illustration of Constant Sum Scaling

Instructions
Below are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among
the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach
to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important
the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an
attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice
as many points.
Form
AVERAGE RESPONSE OF 3 SEGMENTS

Attributes
Segment I
Segment II
Segment III
1. Mildness
2. Lather
17
3. Shrinkage
4. Price
53
17
5. Fragrance
19
6. Packaging
7. Moisturising
20
8. Cleaning Power
13
60
15
100
100
100
SUM
Copyright 2014 Pearson Education,

Copyright
Inc.
2015
Publishing
PearsonasEducation,
Prentice Hall
Inc.
Chapter 7 - 26
Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

In comparative scales, small differences between
stimulus objects can be detected.
Same known reference points for all respondents.
Easily understood and applied.
Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one
judgment to another.
Chapter 7 - 27
Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

Comparative scales result in ordinal data.
There is inability to generalize beyond the stimulus
objects scaled.
Chapter 7 - 28
Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

In noncomparative scaling respondents evaluate only
one object at a time, and for this reason noncomparative
scales are often referred to as monadic scales.
Noncomparative techniques consist of continuous and
itemized rating scales.
In noncomparative scaling, respondents employ
whatever rating standards seem appropriate to them.
Chapter 7 - 29
Figure 7.5
A Classification of Noncomparative Rating
Scales
Noncomparative
Scales
Continuous
Rating Scales
Itemized
Rating Scales
Likert
Semantic
Differential
Stapel
Chapter 7 - 30
Continuous Rating Scale

In a continuous rating scale, respondents rate the objects by placing a mark
at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store?

Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Version 3
Very bad
Neither good
Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Chapter 7 - 31
Itemized Rating Scales

In itemized rating scales, the respondents are provided
with a scale that has a number or brief description
associated with each category.
The categories are ordered in terms of scale position,
and the respondents are required to select the specified
category that best describes the object being rated.
The commonly used itemized rating scales are the
Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
Itemized rating scales are widely used in marketing research
and form the basic components of multi-item scales.
Chapter 7 - 32
Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires respondents to indicate a degree of agreement
or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus
objects.
Strongly
Disagree Neither
disagree
agree nor
disagree
1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1
2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1
3. I like to shop at Sears.
2X
2X
3X
Agree
agree
Strongly
The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile

analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated.
When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the

negative statements should be scored by reversing the scale.
Chapter 7 - 33
Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end
points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
SEARS is:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable
--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left

side of the scale and sometimes at the right.
This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those

with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or
left-hand sides without reading the labels.
Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on

either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
Chapter 7 - 34
Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories
numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is
usually presented vertically.
SEARS
+5
+5
+4
+4
+3
+3
+2
+2x
+1
+1
High Quality
Poor Service
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as
semantic differential data.
-4x
-4
-5
-5
Chapter 7 - 35
Table 7.3
Basic Noncomparative Scales
Scale
Basic
Characteristics
Examples
Advantages
Disadvantages
Continuous
Rating Scale
Place a mark on a
continuous line
Reaction to TV
commercials
Easy to
construct
Scoring can be
cumbersome
unless
computerized
Itemized Rating Scales

Likert Scale
Degree of agreement
on a 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5
(strongly agree) scale
Measurement of Easy to
attitudes
construct,
administer, and
understand
Semantic
Differential
Seven-point scale with Brand, product,

bipolar labels
and company
images
Stapel Scale
Unipolar ten-point
Measurement of Easy to
scale, -5 to +5, without attitudes and
construct and
a neutral point (zero)
images
administer over
telephone
Versatile
More time
consuming
Difficult to construct bipolar

adjectives
Confusing and
difficult to apply
Chapter 7 - 36
Variations in Rating Scales

Noncomparative itemized rating scales need not be
used as originally proposed but can take many different
forms.
For example, the number of categories in a Likert scale
need not be 5, but could be 7.
The number of categories could be odd or even.
A Categories can be expressed by boxes, discrete lines,
or units, with or without numbers.
Chapter 7 - 37
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balanced Scale
Unbalanced Scale
Surfing the Internet is
Surfing the Internet is
____ Extremely Good
____ Extremely Good
____ Very Good
____ Very Good
____ Good
____ Good
____ Bad
____ Somewhat Good
____ Very Bad
____ Bad
____ Extremely Bad
____ Very Bad
Chapter 7 - 38
Figure 7.6
Rating Scale Configurations
A variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure the comfort of Nike shoes. Some examples
include:
Nike shoes are:
1) Place an X on one of the blank spaces
Very
Uncomfortable
2) Circle the number
Very
1
2
3
4
5
Uncomfortable
Very
Comfortable
6
7
Comfortable
Very
3) Place an X on one of the blank spaces

Very Uncomfortable
Uncomfortable
Neither Uncomfortable nor Comfortable
Comfortable
Very Comfortable
Chapter 7 - 39
Figure 7.6 (Cont.)

Rating Scale Configurations
4)
Very
Uncomfortable
Uncomfortable
Somewhat
Uncomfortable
Somewhat Comfortable
Neither
Comfortable
Comfortable nor
Uncomfortable
Very
Comfortable
5)
-3
Very
Uncomfortable
-2
-1
Neither
Comfortable nor
Uncomfortable
Copyright
Chapter
7 -2015
40 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
Very
Comfortable
Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Thermometer Scale
Instructions: Please indicate how much you like
McDonalds hamburgers by coloring in the thermometer.
Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level
that best indicates how strong your preference is.
Form:
100
75
50
25
0
Like very much

Dislike
very much
Chapter 7 - 41
Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Smiling Face Scale
Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how
much you like the Barbie Doll. If you do not like the
Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked
it very much, you would point to Face 5.
Form:
1 2 3 4 5
Chapter 7 - 42
Table 7.4
Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing
Construct
Scale Descriptors
Attitude
Very Bad, Bad, Neither Bad nor Good,

Good, Very Good
Importance
Not at All Important, Not Important, Neutral,

Important, Very Important
Satisfaction
Very Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neither

Dissatisfied nor Satisfied, Satisfied, Very
Satisfied
Purchase Frequency
Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Very Often
Chapter 7 - 43
Figure 7.7
Scale Evaluation
Scale
Evaluation
Reliability
Validity
Chapter 7 - 44
Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the extent to which

measures are free from random error.
Chapter 7 - 45
Reliability: Advanced Concepts

In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical
sets of scale items at two different times and the degree of
similarity between the two measurements is determined.
Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which
different parts of a summated scale are consistent in what they
indicate about the characteristic being measured.
In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into
two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated.
The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of
all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of
splitting the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and
a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates unsatisfactory internal
consistency reliability.
Chapter 7 - 46
Validity
The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to
which differences in observed scale scores reflect true
differences among objects on the characteristic being
measured, rather than systematic or random error.
Perfect validity requires that there be no measurement
error. That is, random error must be zero and systematic
error must be zero.
Chapter 7 - 47
Validity: Advanced Concepts

Validity consists of content validity, criterion validity, and
construct validity.
Content validity is a subjective but systematic
evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents
the measurement task at hand.
Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as
expected in relation to other variables selected (criterion
variables) as meaningful criteria.
Construct validity addresses the question of what
construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact,
measuring.
Chapter 7 - 48
Relationship Between Reliability and Validity

If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable.
In this case, there is no random or systematic error.
If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid,
since at a minimum random error is present. Thus,
unreliability implies invalidity.
If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be
perfectly valid, because systematic error may still be
present.
Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
validity.
Chapter 7 - 49
Relationship of Measurement and

Scaling to the Marketing Research
Process Step 1 : Marketing Research Problem Definition
Step 2 : Approach to the Problem
Specification of information needed
Step 3 : Research Design

Appropriate level of measurement and appropriate scales to measure each item of
information
Questionnaire Design: translation of the information needed to
appropriate questions using the identified scales
Step 5 : Data Preparation and Analysis:

Using appropriate statistical techniques compatible with the level of measurement
of the data
Chapter 7 - 50
International Marketing Research

In developing countries, the respondents might have
difficulty using interval and ratio scales. consumer
preferences in these countries are best measured with
ordinal scales.
The primary scales should be matched to the profile of
the target respondents.
Chapter 7 - 51
International Marketing Research (Cont.)

Pan-cultural scales, designed to be free of cultural
biases, are used in international research.
An approach to developing pan-cultural scales is to use
descriptors the respondents create themselves. The end
descriptors used to anchor the scale are particularly
prone to different interpretations.
Additionally, the scale numbering may have different
meanings. In such cases, it might be desirable to avoid
numbers and to just use boxes that respondent can
check.
Chapter 7 - 52
International Marketing Research (Cont.)

Of the scaling techniques considered, the semantic
differential has been applied with the greatest
consistency in results across countries.
Rating scales also are used to construct indexes used to
make global comparisons.
In some cultures 1 may be interpreted as best,
while in others it may be interpreted as worst,
regardless of how it is scaled. Scale end points
and the verbal descriptors should be used in a
manner that is consistent with the culture.
Chapter 7 - 53
Marketing Research & Social Media

All the primary scales and all the comparative scales can
be easily implemented in social media.
An analysis of social media content can shed light on the
level of measurement that is appropriate in a given
project and provide guidance on the type of scaling
techniques to use.
Specific measures have been developed to evaluate
social media sites based on information that is publicly
available, e.g., number of friends or followers, number of
comments, and media citations.
Chapter 7 - 54
Marketing Research & Social Media (Cont.)

All the noncomparative scales can be easily
implemented in social media.
An analysis of social media content can provide
guidance on whether continuous or itemized rating
scales should be used. It can also aid the researcher in
making appropriate rating scale decisions.
It is feasible to employ more than one scaling method to
measure a given construct.
Chapter 7 - 55
Ethics in Marketing Research

Knowingly using inappropriate scales raises ethical
questions.
It is the obligation of the researcher to obtain the data
that are most appropriate given the research questions.
The researchers should not deliberately bias the results
by building that bias into noncomparative scales.
Chapter 7 - 56
Ethics in Marketing Research (Cont.)

The researcher should establish the reliability and
validity of scales.
The researcher has a responsibility to both the client and
respondents to ensure the applicability and usefulness of
the scales.
The researcher should not bias the scale by biasing

the wording of the statements, the scale descriptors,
or other aspects of the scale.
Chapter 7 - 57
Chapter 7 - 58
Chapter 7 - 59
Acronym: Four
The four primary types of scales can be described by the
acronym FOUR:
F igurative: nominal scale
O rdinal scale
U nconstrained zero point: interval scale
R atio scale
Chapter 7 - 60
Acronym: Scales
The different comparative and noncomparative scales can
be represented by the acronym SCALES:
S emantic differential scale
C onstant sum scale
A rranged in order: rank order scale
L ikert scale
E ngaged: paired comparison scale
S tapel scale
Chapter 7 - 61

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Chapter 7

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Learning Objectives (Cont.)

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Learning Objectives (Cont.)

7. Discuss the considerations involved in implementing

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Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Sampling Process &

Step 4: Doing Field Work/ Collecting Data

Secondary & Syndicated Data Analysis

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Measurement and Scaling

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Measurement and Scaling (Cont.)

An Illustration of Scale Characteristics

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Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Primary Scales of Measurement:

Primary Scales of Measurement:

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Primary Scales of Measurement:

Primary Scales of Measurement:

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Ordinal Rank Order

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Numbers indicate the relative

Differences between objects

Zero point is fixed; ratios of

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Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scaling Techniques:

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An Illustration of Paired Comparison Scaling

Head & Shoulders

A 1 in a particular box means that the

Number of times preferred

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Comparative Scaling Techniques:

An Illustration of Rank Order Scaling

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Comparative Scaling Techniques:

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An Illustration of Constant Sum Scaling

AVERAGE RESPONSE OF 3 SEGMENTS

Copyright 2014 Pearson Education,

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

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Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

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Noncomparative Scaling Techniques

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Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Continuous Rating Scale

How would you rate Sears as a department store?

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Itemized Rating Scales

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile

When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the

Semantic Differential Scale

The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left