Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology

Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
Fifth edition
Seeley, Stephens and Tate
Chapter 11: Blood
Copyright2003PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasBenjaminCummings
Slide 2.1
Blood: General Information

The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Living components = formed elements
Some are not true cells
Non-living matrix = plasma
Slide 10.1a
Blood
Figure 10.1
Slide 10.1b
Blood: Functions
Transportation system
Temperature regulation
Acid-base balance (blood buffers)
Protection
Clotting
Antibody production
Slide 10.1a
Physical Characteristics of Blood

Color is due to Oxygen carrying
pigment: hemoglobin
Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
Contains oxyhemoglobin
Oxygen-poor blood is bluish

Contains deoxyhemoglobin
Slide 10.2
Physical Characteristics of Blood

Average volume: 4.5-5.5 liters
pH must remain between 7.357.45
Is this acidic or alkaline??
Blood temperature is slightly higher than

body temperature
Slide 10.2
Blood Plasma
Approximately 90% water
Transports dissolved substances
Nutrients
Salts (electrolytes, ions)
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Proteins
Waste products
Slide 10.3
Blood
Figure 10.1
Slide 10.1b
Plasma Proteins
Albumin regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins active in clot
formation
Antibodies help protect the body from
illness and infection
Slide 10.4
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes = red blood cells (RBCs)

Leukocytes = white blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets = cell fragments (thrombocytes)
Slide 10.5a
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

The main function is to carry oxygen
Anatomy of erythrocytes
Biconcave disks
Essentially bags of hemoglobin
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain few organelles
Slide 10.6
An Erythrocyte
Figure 17.3
Erythrocytes: Levels in Blood

Live only four (4) months or ~120 days
Average RBC count:
Males: 5.4 million/mm3
Females: 4.8 million/mm3
Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
Slide 10.6
Fate of Erythrocytes
Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
proteins
Wear out in 100 to 120 days
Removed by phagocytes in the spleen
or liver
New RBCs made by stem cells in bone
marrow
Slide 10.15
Did you know

About 2 million RBCs are destroyed each
second
About 2 million RBCs are produced each
second (by what process??)
Humans have over a trillion RBCs
Blue Whales have 7,000 GALLONS of
blood
Blood is thicker than water (4x)
Slide 10.15
Erythrocytes: Disorders
Anemias:
Hemorrhagic: due to blood loss
Aplastic: RBCs not made
Hemolytic: RBCs destroyed
Polycythemia: too many RBCs
Slide 10.6
Hemoglobin
Iron-containing protein
Binds reversibly to oxygen
Each molecule has four oxygen binding
sites
Each erythrocyte can carry 250 million
hemoglobin molecules
Slide 10.7
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Play a role in immune response
Typical cells with nucleus, organelles
Able to move into and out of blood
vessels by
Diapedesis: Gr. leaping through
Slide 10.8
Types of Leukocytes
L to R: lymphocyte, basophil, monocyte,

neutrophil, eosinophil
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Move by ameboid motion
Respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues
chemotaxis chemical attraction
Allows for immune response
Slide 10.8
Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

Normal levels are between 4,000 and
11,000 cells per mm3
Abnormal leukocyte levels
Leukocytosis
Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
Generally indicates an infection
Slide 10.9
Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

Leukopenia
Abnormally low leukocyte level
<4000/mm3
May be caused by certain drugs
Leukemia: cancer of WBCs
myeloid
lymphoid
Slide 10.9
Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes
Granules in their
cytoplasm can be
stained
Include
neutrophils,
eosinophils, and
basophils
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Granulocytes
Neutrophils:
Multilobed nucleus with
Fine, pale purple
granules in cytoplasm
Act as phagocytes
Most numerous in
blood
Slide 10.11a
Types of Leukocytes
Neutrophils
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Granulocytes
Eosinophils:
Large brick-red
cytoplasmic granules
Respond to allergies and
parasites
Rare in blood
Slide 10.11a
Types of Leukocytes
Eosinophils
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Granulocytes
Basophils:
Have dark blue/black granules
Granules contain histamine,
serotonin, heparin
Initiate inflammation
Rarest in blood
Most live in respiratory tract
Slide 10.11b
Types of Leukocytes
Basophils
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10b
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes:
Nucleus fills most of the
cell
Major role in immunity
B lymphocytes
make antibodies
plasma cells
T lymphocytes: mediate
function of B cells
Slide 10.12
Types of Leukocytes
Slide 10.10a
Lymphocytes
Figure 10.4
Agranulocytes
Monocytes:
Largest of the white blood
cells
Function as phagocytes
Called macrophages in
tissues
Fight chronic infection
Slide 10.12
Types of Leukocytes
Monocytes
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Platelets
Cytoplasmic fragments of marrow cells
(megakaryocytes)
Needed for the clotting process
Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
Replaced in 24 hours
(apheresis)
Slide 10.13
Types of Leukocytes
Platelets
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Hematopoiesis
Blood cell formation
Occurs in red bone marrow
All blood cells are derived from a
common stem cell
Hemocytoblast
Slide 10.14
Hematopoiesis
Figure 10.4
Slide 10.10a
Hemostasis: Blood Clotting

Stoppage of blood flow
Result of a break in a blood vessel
Hemostasis involves three phases
Platelet plug formation
Vascular spasms
Coagulation
Slide 10.18
Platelet Plug Formation

Collagen fibers are exposed by injury to
vessel
Platelets become sticky and cling to
fibers
Platelets release chemicals to attract
more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
Slide 10.19
Hemostasis, cont
Fig. 11.8
Platelet plug
formation
Slide 10.19
Vascular Spasms
Anchored platelets release serotonin
Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles
to spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss
Slide 10.20
Coagulation
Injured tissues release thromboplastin
Thromboplastin, clotting factors, and
calcium ions interact to trigger a clotting
cascade
Prothrombin activator converts
prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
Slide 10.21a
Coagulation
Slide 10.21a
Fig. 11.9
Cascade of reactions in clot formation

Coagulation
Process requires Vit. K
Thrombin converts fibrinogen proteins
into hair-like fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork: traps RBCs
(the basis for a clot)
Slide 10.21b
Clot Retraction
After clot is formed, shrinkage occurs

Squeezes out serum
A clear yellow fluid
Plasma minus clotting proteins
Slide 10.21b
Blood Clotting
Blood should clot in 3 to 6 minutes

The clot remains till endothelium
regenerates
The clot is broken down after tissue
repair
Slide 10.22
Undesirable Clotting
Thrombus
A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly
Coronary thrombosis
DVT: deep vein thrombosis
Slide 10.23
Thrombus in Artery
Undesirable Clotting
Embolus
Clot moving through a vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the brain, lung
Pulmonary embolism
Cerebral embolism
Slide 10.23
Bleeding Disorders
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet deficiency
Causes bleeding from small blood vessels
Can result from chemo, radiation
May be age-related
Slide 10.24
Bleeding Disorders
Hemophilia
Hereditary bleeding disorder
Normal clotting factors are missing
Many types, depending on clotting factor
A gene mutation: Queen Victoria
Slide 10.24
Blood Groups and Transfusions

Large losses of blood have serious
consequences
Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
which can be fatal
Slide 10.25
Blood Groups and Transfusions

Transfusions are the only way to
replace blood quickly
Transfused blood must be of the same
blood group
Wrong group: dead patient
First done: William Harvey, England
(1600s?)
Slide 10.25
Human Blood Groups

RBCs carry genetically determined
proteins
Called antigens (Ag)
Proteins embedded in cell membrane
A foreign protein (Ag) may be attacked
by the immune system
Slide 10.26a
Human Blood Groups

How blood is typed:
Uses antibodies (Ab)
Made by body against foreign
proteins
cause different blood to clump
(agglutination)
Slide 10.26a
Blood Typing
Blood antigens
Type A
Type B
Agglutininins (Ab)
Act in blood typing
Antigen-antibody
reaction
Human Blood Groups

There are over 30 red blood cell
antigens
Two groups cause serious transfusion
reactions
ABO group antigens
Rh group antigens
Slide 10.26b
ABO Blood Groups

Based on the presence or absence of two
antigens
Type A
Type B
The lack of both these antigens is called

type O
Slide 10.27a
ABO Blood Groups

The presence of A is called type A
The presence B is called type B
The presence of both A and B is called
type AB
Slide 10.27b
Blood Groups
Blood Types and their
corresponding Abs
Type A, anti-B
Type B, Anti-A
Type AB, neither
Type O, both
Rh Blood Groups
Depends on presence or absence of Rh
antigens (agglutinogen D)
Most Americans are Rh+ (85%)
Rest are Rh Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood
into a body with Rh blood
Slide 10.28
Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

Called hemolytic disease of the newborn
or Erythroblostosis fetalis
Danger is only when
the mother is Rh
the father is Rh+
the child inherits the Rh+ factor
Slide 10.29a

Problem in an Rh mother carrying an
Rh+ baby:
The first pregnancy usually proceeds
without problems
At birth, mother may receive some of
babys RBCs
Slide 10.29b

Moms immune system is sensitized
Makes antibodies against Rh
In a subsequent pregnancy:
Mothers blood carries antibodies
Anti-Rh antibodies cross placenta
Attack the Rh+ blood in the fetus
Slide 10.29b

Fig. 11.13
Erythroblostosis
fetalis, or
Hemolytic
disease of the
newborn
Slide 10.29b
Blood Typing
Blood samples are mixed with anti-serum
anti-A: against A antigens
anti-B: against B antigens
Presence/absence of agglutination
determines blood type
Slide 10.30
Blood Typing
Blood Typing
Typing for Rh factors is done in the same
manner
Cross matching
testing for agglutination of donor RBCs
by the recipients serum
testing for agglutination of recipient
RBCs by the donors serum
Slide 10.30

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Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 11: Blood

Blood: General Information

Non-living matrix = plasma

Physical Characteristics of Blood

Oxygen-poor blood is bluish

Physical Characteristics of Blood

Blood temperature is slightly higher than

Erythrocytes = red blood cells (RBCs)

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Erythrocytes: Levels in Blood

Did you know

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

L to R: lymphocyte, basophil, monocyte,

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

Hemostasis: Blood Clotting

Platelet Plug Formation

Cascade of reactions in clot formation

After clot is formed, shrinkage occurs

Blood should clot in 3 to 6 minutes

Blood Groups and Transfusions

Blood Groups and Transfusions

Human Blood Groups

Human Blood Groups

Human Blood Groups

ABO Blood Groups

The lack of both these antigens is called

ABO Blood Groups

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

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