Dimensional Analysis

Introduction
1.
2.

3.

4.

Many practical real flow problems in fluid mechanics can

be solved by using equations and analytical procedures.
However, solutions of some real flow problems depend
heavily on experimental data. Based on the
measurements, refinements in the analysis are made.
Hence, there is an essential link in this iterative process.
Sometimes, the experimental work in the laboratory is
not only time-consuming, but also expensive. So, the
main goal is to extract maximum information from
fewest experiments.
In this regard, dimensional analysis is an important tool
that helps in correlating analytical results with
experimental data

Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.

Understand dimensions, units, and dimensional

homogeneity
Understand benefits of dimensional analysis
Know how to use the method of repeating variables
Understand the concept of similarity and how to
apply it to experimental modeling

Dimensional Analysis
The analytically derived equations in engineering
applications are correct for any system of units and
consequently each group of terms in the equation must
have the same dimensional representation. This is the
law of dimensional homogeneity .
In many instances, the variables involved in physical
phenomena are known, while the relationship among
the variables is not known. Such a relationship can be
formulated between a set of dimensionless groups of
variables and the groups numbering less than the
variables. This procedure is called dimensional
analysis . This procedure requires less experimentation
and the nature of experimentation is considerably
simplified.

The following examples will make

the things clear
Consider a steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a
long, smooth walled, horizontal circular pipe. It is desired to measure
the pressure drop per unit length of the pipe without the use of
experimental data
The first step is to list out the variables that affect the pressure drop
per unit length
These variables may be pipe diameter D , fluid
density
, fluid viscosity
and mean velocity at which the fluid is
flowing through the pipe. Thus, the relationship can be expressed as,

(i)

At this point, the nature of the function is unknown and the

experiments are to be performed to determine the nature of the
function.
In order to perform the experiments in a systematic and meaningful
manner, it is necessary to change one variable at a time keeping the
others constant and measure the corresponding pressure drop.

The series of tests would result the data that can be

represented in graphical form as shown in Fig. 1 (a-d).
Referring to the Fig. 1(c), it would be difficult to vary
fluid density while holding viscosity constant. Moreover,
it would be rather impossible to obtain a general
functional relationship between
,
D,
for any similar pipe

A simple approach to this problem is to collect two nondimensional combinations of the variables (i.e.
dimensionless products/dimensional groups) such that

Now, the working variables are reduced to only two

instead of five . The necessary experiment would simply
consist of varying the dimensionless product
and determining the corresponding value
The results of the experiment could then be represented
by a single, universal curve as illustrated in Fig. 2. It
would be valid for any combination of smooth-walled
pipe and incompressible Newtonian fluid

Dimensions and Units

Review

Dimension: Measure of a physical quantity,

e.g., length, time, mass
Units: Assignment of a number to a
dimension, e.g., (m), (sec), (kg)
7 Primary Dimensions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
Current
Amount of Light
Amount of matter

m
L
t
T
I
C
N

(kg)
(m)
(sec)
(K)
(A)
(cd)
(mol)

Dimensions and Units

Review, continued

All non-primary dimensions can be formed

by a combination of the 7 primary
dimensions
Examples

{Velocity} = {Length/Time} = {L/t}

{Force} = {Mass Length/Time} = {mL/t2}

Dimensions and Units

Dimensional Homogeneity
Law of dimensional homogeneity (DH): every
additive term in an equation must have the
same dimensions
Example: Bernoulli equation

{p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time x 1/length 2}

= {m/(t2L)}
{1/2V2} = {mass/length3 x (length/time)2} = {m/(t2L)}
{gz} = {mass/length3 x length/time2 x length} ={m/
(t2L)}

Dimensional Homogeneity
Law of dimensional homogeneity (DH): every
additive term in an equation must have the
same dimensions
Example: Bernoulli equation

{p} = {force/area}={mass x length/time x 1/length 2}

= {m/(t2L)}
{1/2V2} = {mass/length3 x (length/time)2} = {m/(t2L)}
{gz} = {mass/length3 x length/time2 x length} ={m/
(t2L)}

Nondimensionalization of Equations
Given the law of DH, if we divide each term in the
equation by a collection of variables and constants that
have the same dimensions, the equation is rendered
nondimensional
In the process of nondimensionalizing an equation,
nondimensional parameters often appear, e.g.,
Reynolds number and Froude number

Nondimensionalization of Equations
To nondimensionalize, for example, the
Bernoulli equation, the first step is to list
primary dimensions of all dimensional
variables and constants

{p} = {m/(t2L)} {} = {m/L3}

{g} = {L/t2} {z} = {L}

{V} = {L/t}

Next, we need to select Scaling Parameters. For

this example, select L, U0, 0

Nondimensionalization of Equations
By inspection, nondimensionalize all
variables with scaling parameters

Back-substitute p, , V, g, z into
dimensional equation

Nondimensionalization of Equations
Divide by 0U02 and set * = 1
(incompressible flow)

Since g* = 1/Fr2, where

Nondimensionalization of Equations
Note that convention often dictates many of the
nondimensional parameters, e.g., 1/20U02 is
typically used to nondimensionalize pressure.

This results in a slightly different form of the

nondimensional equation

BE CAREFUL! Always double check definitions.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
Advantages of
nondimensionalization
Increases insight about key parameters
Decreases number of parameters in the
problem
Easier communication
Fewer experiments
Fewer simulations

Extrapolation of results to untested

conditions

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Nondimensionalization of an equation is
useful only when the equation is known!
In many real-world flows, the equations are
either unknown or too difficult to solve.
Experimentation is the only method of
obtaining reliable information
In most experiments, geometrically-scaled
models are used (time and money).
Experimental conditions and results must be
properly scaled so that results are meaningful
for the full-scale prototype.
Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Primary purposes of dimensional
analysis
To generate nondimensional parameters
that help in the design of experiments
(physical and/or numerical) and in
reporting of results
To obtain scaling laws so that prototype
performance can be predicted from model
performance.
To predict trends in the relationship
between parameters.

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Geometric Similarity - the model must
be the same shape as the prototype.
Each dimension must be scaled by the
same factor.

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Kinematic Similarity - velocity as any
point in the model must be proportional
The similarity of time as well as geometry.
It exists if:
i. the paths of particles are geometrically
similar
ii. the ratios of the velocities of are similar

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Some useful ratios are:

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Dynamic Similarity
If geometrically and kinematically similar and the
ratios of all forces are the same.

This occurs when the controlling group is the same

for model and prototype.
The controlling group is usually Re. So Re is the
same for model and prototype:

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

Complete similarity is ensured if all independent
groups are the same between model and
prototype.
What is ?

We let uppercase Greek letter denote a nondimensional

parameter, e.g.,Reynolds number Re, Froude number Fr,
Drag coefficient, CD, etc.
Consider automobile experiment
Drag force is F = f(V, , L)
Through dimensional analysis, we can reduce the
problem to

Geometric distortion in river

models
For practical reasons it is difficult to build a geometrically similar model.

A model with suitable depth of flow will often be far too big - take up too much floor
space.

Keeping Geometric Similarity result in:

depths and become very difficult to measure;

the bed roughness becomes impracticably small;
laminar flow may occur
(turbulent flow is normal in rivers.)

Solution: Abandon geometric similarity.

Typical values are

1/100 in the vertical and 1/400 in the horizontal.

Resulting in:

Good overall flow patterns and discharge

local detail of flow is not well modelled.

The Froude number (Fn) is taken as dominant.

Fn can be the same even for distorted models

Geometric distortion in river

models

Solution: Abandon geometric similarity.

Typical values are

1/100 in the vertical and 1/400 in the horizontal.

Resulting in:
Good overall flow patterns and discharge
local detail of flow is not well modelled.
The Froude number (Fn) is taken as dominant.
Fn can be the same even for distorted models

Method of Repeating Variables

( Buckinghams Theorm

Nondimensional parameters can be generated by

several methods.
We will use the Method of Repeating Variables
Six steps
1. List the parameters in the problem and count their total
number n.
2. List the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters
3. Set the reduction j as the number of primary dimensions.
Calculate k, the expected number of 's, k = n - j.
4. Choose j repeating parameters.
5. Construct the k 's, and manipulate as necessary.
6. Write the final functional relationship and check algebra.

Method of Repeating Variables

( Buckinghams Theorm

Nondimensional parameters can be generated by

several methods.
We will use the Method of Repeating Variables
Six steps
1. List the parameters in the problem and count their total
number n.
2. List the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters
3. Set the reduction j as the number of primary dimensions.
Calculate k, the expected number of 's, k = n - j.
4. Choose j repeating parameters.
5. Construct the k 's, and manipulate as necessary.
6. Write the final functional relationship and check algebra.

Step 1: List all the variables that

are involved in the problem
1.

Most difficult, vitally important that all pertinent variables

are included.

2.

We are using the term variable to include any quantity,

including dimensional and nondimensional constants,
which play a role in the phenomenon under
investigation.
The determination of the variables must be accomplished
by the experimenters knowledge of the problem
is important that all variables be independent.

3.
4.

1.

2.

Step 2: Express each of the

variables in terms of basic
dimensions

For the typical fluid mechanics problem the basic

dimensions will be either M, L, and T or F, L, and T.
Dimensionally these two sets are related through Newtons
second law so that F MLT 2.
For example, = ML-3 or = FL-4T-2 Thus, either set can be
used

Step 3: Determine the required number of pi terms

1. This can be accomplished by means of the Buckingham pi
theorem, which indicates that the number of pi terms is
equal to k r
2. where k is the number of variables in the problem 1which is
determined from Step 1 and r is the number of reference
dimensions required to describe these variables 1which is
determined from Step 2.

Step 4: Select a number of

repeating variables, where the
number required is equal to the
1.number
Essentially what
we are doing here
is selecting from the
of reference
dimensions
2.
3.
4.

original list of variables several of which can be combined

with each of the remaining variables to form a pi term.
All of the required reference dimensions must be included
within the group of repeating variables, and each repeating
variable must be dimensionally independent of the others
the dimensions of one repeating variable cannot be
reproduced by some combination of products of powers of
the remaining repeating variables.
This means that the repeating variables cannot themselves
be combined to form a dimensionless product.

Step 5
Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables
by the product of the repeating variables, each raised to an
exponent that will make the combination dimensionless.
Essentially each pi term will be of the form uiu1 aiu2 biu3

ci

Where u is one of the nonrepeating variables; and u1, u2

and u3 are the repeating variables; and the exponents and
are determined so that the combination is dimensionless.

1.

Step 6: Repeat Step 5 for each of

th remaining nonrepeating
variables

The resulting set of pi terms will correspond to the required

number obtained from Step 3. If not, check your workyou
have made a mistake!

Example: steady flow of an incompressible

Newtonian fluid through a long, smoothwalled, horizontal circular pipe. We are
interested in the pressure drop per unit

length, along the pipe

 First (Step 1) we must list all of the pertinent variables

that are involved based on the experimenters
knowledge of the problem.
In this problem we assume that

where D is the pipe diameter, and are the fluid

density and viscosity, respectively, and V is the mean
velocity.
Step 2: we express all the variables in terms of basic
dimensions. Using F, L, and T as basic dimensions it
follows that

 We could also use M, L, and T as basic dimensions if

desiredthe final result will be the same. Note that for
density, which is a mass per unit volume we have used
the relationship F MLT-2 to express the density in terms
of F, L, and T. Do not mix the basic dimensions; that is,
use either F, L, and T or M, L, and T.
We can now apply the pi theorem to determine the
required number of pi terms
Step 3. An inspection of the dimensions of the variables
from Step 2 reveals that all three basic dimensions are
required to describe the variables. Since there are five
variables (do not forget to count
the dependent variable
, and three required
reference dimensions (r= 3) then according to the pi
theorem there will be (5-3) or two pi terms required.

 The repeating variables to be used to form the pi terms

1Step 42 need to be selected from the list D, , , and
V. Remember, we do not want to use the dependent
variable as one of the repeating variables. Since three
reference dimensions are required, we will need to
select three repeating variables. Generally, we would
try to select as repeating variables those that are the
simplest, dimensionally.
We are now ready to form the two pi terms (Step 5).
Typically, we would start with the dependent variable
and combine it with the repeating variables to form the
first pi term; that is,
.

 The exponents, a, b, and c must be determined such

that the resulting exponent for each of the basic
dimensionsF, L, and Tmust be zero, so that the
resulting combination is dimensionless.

The solution of this system of algebraic equations gives

the desired values for a, b, and c. It follows that and,
therefore,

 The process is now repeated for the remaining

nonrepeating variables 1(Step 6). In this example there
is only one additional variable so that

Solving these equations simultaneously it follows

 Note that we end up with the correct number of pi terms

as determined from Step 3. At this point stop and check
to make sure the pi terms are actually dimensionless.

we can express the result of the dimensional analysis as

Guidelines for choosing Repeating

parameters
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Never pick the dependent variable. Otherwise, it may

appear in all the 's.
Chosen repeating parameters must not by themselves be
able to form a dimensionless group. Otherwise, it would be
impossible to generate the rest of the 's.
Chosen repeating parameters must represent all the primary
dimensions.
Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless.
Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions or
with dimensions that differ by only an exponent.
Choose dimensional constants over dimensional variables so
that only one contains the dimensional variable.
Pick common parameters since they may appear in each of
the 's.
Pick simple parameters over complex parameters.

Example
Step 1: List relevant
z=f(t,w0,z0,g)
Ball Falling in a Vacuum parameters.
n=5
Step 2: Primary dimensions
of each parameter

Step 3: As a first guess,

reduction j is set to 2 which is
the number of primary
dimensions (L and t).
Number of expected 's is
k=n-j=5-2=3
Step 4: Choose repeating
variables w0 and z0

Example, continued
Step 5: Combine repeating parameters into products
with each of the remaining parameters, one at a
time, to create the s.
1 = zw0a1z0b1

a1 and b1 are constant exponents which must be

determined.
Use the primary dimensions identified in Step 2 and solve for
a1 and b1.

Time equation:
Length equation:
This results in

Example, continued
Step 5: continued
Repeat process for 2 by combining repeating parameters
with t
2 = tw0a2z0b2

Time equation:
Length equation:

This results in

Example, continued
Step 5: continued
Repeat process for 3 by combining repeating parameters
with g
3 = gw0a3z0b3

Time equation:
Length equation:

This results in

Example, continued
Step 6:

Double check that the 's are dimensionless.

Write the functional relationship between 's

Or, in terms of nondimensional variables

Overall conclusion: Method of repeating

variables properly predicts the functional
relationship between dimensionless groups.
However, the method cannot predict the exact
mathematical form of the equation.

Experimental Testing and

Incomplete
Similarity

One of the most useful applications of dimensional

analysis is in designing physical and/or numerical
experiments, and in reporting the results.
Setup of an experiment and correlation of data.
Consider a problem with 5 parameters:
one dependent and 4 independent.
Full test matrix with 5 data points for
each independent parameter would
require 54=625 experiments!!
If we can reduce to 2 's, the number of
independent parameters is reduced from
4 to 1, which results in 51=5 experiments
vs. 625!!

Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
Wanapum Dam on Columbia River

Physical Model at
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research

Flows with free surfaces present

unique challenges in achieving
complete dynamic similarity.
For hydraulics applications, depth is
very small in comparison to
horizontal dimensions. If geometric
similarity is used, the model depth
would be so small that other issues
would arise
Surface tension effects (Weber
number) would become important.
Data collection becomes difficult.

Distorted models are therefore

employed, which requires empirical
corrections/correlations to
extrapolate model data to full scale.

Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
DDG-51 Destroyer
For ship hydrodynamics, Fr similarity is
maintained while Re is allowed to be
different.
Why? Look at complete similarity:

1/20th scale model

To match both Re and Fr, viscosity in the

model test is a function of scale ratio!
This is not feasible.